South Africa-Logan Shannon

Pre Classical Age (3500-800  B.C.E)

This painting of a deer is found in the caves of Northern South Africa. Although there is no name for the painting, they were created by Bushmen artists in South Africa during the times of 30,000 B.C.E and 800 B.C.E. This specific painting is about a deer but there are many other paintings that correlates animals to meanings. The specific purpose of this painting is to show somebody being reborn into a buck in the spiritual world. Specifically, this painting of a buck depicts that the artists and civilians during the pre-classical era of South Africa believed that when one died, they would be reborn into something depending on how they acted and behaved while living in their human bodies.
Skelton, Dominic. "The incredible history of Bushman rock art in Southern Africa revealed." Times LIVE. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Mar. 2017.

Found in the Blombos Cave in South Africa is a 100,000 year old Incised Ochre. Since this was marked back 100,000 years ago, this applies to Africa's stone age which in context relates to the pre-classical age. Scientists are unsure what these findings meant to ancient South African people but many guests have accumulated to the idea that the patterns designed in the shell were used as models for pigments designs applied to animal skin. Even though we are not 100 percent sure what these findings represent, we can point at the fact that these scribbles and dashes in the ochre can be a message, first signs of art, or just scribbling. These findings serve as an important time in South African culture because never has anybody seen messages written in objects as far as 100,000 years ago and can argue that South African artists and tribes were ahead of their time. Since these findings are still uncertain in their meaning, they are still in scientists hands being worked on in laboratories. 
"100,000 Year-Old Incised Ochre Found At Blombos Cave." Anthropology.net. N.p., 13 June 2009. Web. 23 Mar. 2017.

Once again found in the Blombos Cave of South Africa were arguably the most important pieces of architecture discovered. These findings were tools made from bones during 25-70 Ka(Middle Stone Age). The creators of the artifact were modern South African's. The purpose of the artifact was that he bones were used for cooking and digging and was a really important find because rarely if ever, were bones found in the Stone Age of Africa. It tells us the people of South Africa during this time created the first use of tools in the region and made blueprints for generations to come and develop better tools with better materials and uses. Archeologists were able to dig up 28 bone tools between 1992 and 2000. These bone tools can be found throughout many museums in ancient art museums in Africa.
Henshilwood, C. S., F. D'Errico, C. W. Marean, R. G. Milo, and R. Yates. "An early bone tool industry from the Middle Stone Age at Blombos Cave, South Africa: implications for the origins of modern human behaviour, symbolism and language." Journal of human evolution. U.S. National Library of Medicine, Dec. 2001. Web. 23 Mar. 2017 

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES
Adams Calendar- Middle Stone Age

Above is an ancient structure built in the middle stone age in South Africa called Adams Calendar. They are ancient remains of temples from the middle stone age of South Africa. "The only ways to see these magnificent sculptures are in the air in an hour long trip"(Makamoti, July 17th, 2008). These tall sculptures can stand up to 5 meters high and goes on for miles and miles. Once there was a road that connected all the different temples and shows that the ancient South African's were no strangers to mobility and transportation. When originally built, they were used as a calendar to tell the months, dates, and years. "Over the years they began to erode and cover with soil,but are still a monument people travel to see"(Makamoti, July 17th, 2008). "It becomes evident that this was no accidental settlement but a gold mining industry. It shows that the ancient South Africans were advanced in agriculture"(Makomoti, July 17th, 2008). Many of these sculptures were aligned to specific geographic points including solstices and equinoxes. 
"Adam's Calender - A Rich and Diverse History of Humanity." Adam's Calender - A Rich and Diverse History of Humanity. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.

Ancient Gold Mines of South Africa 

"In my personal experience and research I have found at least 25 ancient mine shafts in gold-rich areas and been told about dozens more by farmers all over South Africa. Ancient mines covered by 30 metres of soil have been reported by at least 2 miners in the ‘30’s in the province of Limpopo and more than 75,000 mines have been reported by geological companies in Mpumalanga. It seems that gold mining has been going on here for a lot longer than most of us ever imagined"(Michael Tellinger). With gold mines like these, it is certain that the South African ancient people had some type of wealth and can be considered that gold meant power. These mines founded by geologists in the 1930's proves that South Africa had one of the biggest gold mining industries during its time in the middle stone age.Cassin, Camara. "100,000 Year Old Ruins of South Africa." Ancient Explorers. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.

                                                           Homo Naledi(3500-800BCE)

Founded in Johannesburg, another type of homo species was founded called the Homo Naledi. These creatures apparently walked on all fours like primates and were roaming around South Africa during the pre classical era. These findings were huge because it correlates to the idea that all humans evolved from monkeys and these creatures walked on all fours like them. These humans grew no more than 5 feet and their brain was smaller than an orange. These finds were found in the Dinaledi chamber and are still be viewed by scientists to this day. "We have a cave filled with individuals who are all cramped into a chamber and you ask yourself how did they get here"( Professor Paul Derks)

 Connor, Steve. "Homo naledi: New species of human discovered after ancient skeletons unearthed in South Africa." The Independent. Independent Digital News and Media, 10 Sept. 2015. Web. 25 Apr. 2017. <http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/new-species-of-human-discovered-by-scientists-after-ancient-skeletons-unearthed-in-south-africa-10494462.html>.

The Classical Age (800 BCE-500 CE)

The weapons shown above were used by the ancient Zulu tribe of southern Africa. All though there are no specific dates these weapons were used or found, it is stated the Zulu people often used these in battle during the classical age. These weapons tell us that the Zulu people in southern Africa were advanced in their weaponry and used swords, shields, and axes. You can find these ancient Zulu artifacts throughout museums in southern African museums.
"Shaka Zulu." Deadliest Warrior Wiki. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 May 2017.

Depicted above is what people in all regions of Africa called Sangoma African Voodoo people. These people perfume rituals using black magic and witchcraft that can punish people or heal them. All though they are still around today you can date back the Voodoo people of South Africa all the way back to the classical age. These images and descriptions obviously tell people that Africa specifically southern Africa, was very into witchcraft and black magic. All though these people were outsiders centuries ago, they became a powerful group who people in African villages go to for help, revenge, and forgiveness. To this day, you may see some of these Voodoo artists dressed in elaborate clothing with face paint on.
Reporter, Daily Mail. "Is this what they mean by voodoo economics? The British banker who quit his job to become South African witch doctor." Daily Mail Online. Associated Newspapers, 01 July 2011. Web. 01 May 2017.

Mailonline, James Dunn For. "Ritual dances, goat slaughtering and gin: Thousands gather for voodoo religious festival in tiny African country of Benin." Daily Mail Online. Associated Newspapers, 11 Jan. 2016. Web. 01 May 2017.

These shown above where ostrich eggshell beads made by the ancient San people of South Africa during around 400 BCE. These were used as necklaces and shows that fashion and the idea of freezing nice were important to this Southern Africa tribe. These have also showed historians that the San people were also not just making weapons and armory but actually had a type of cultural as well. 
MailOnline, Eddie Wrenn for. "Research that could set humanity back 20,000 years: Ornaments and tools show that Modern Man emerged 44,000 years ago (much earlier than we thought)." Daily Mail Online. Associated Newspapers, 30 July 2012. Web. 01 May 2017.

"Many people believe that the evolution of Africa has not reached the stage of writing, while it is they who have learned to other writing. 
This is because of this that we want to present samples of African writing and literature related ending with N'ko. This writing on which we dwell is the most powerful and most advanced current entries because of its phonetic and phonological characteristics. 
As Africa is the birthplace of writing, so the point of dissemination of the scriptures, we consider in this regard that the writing is not foreign to Africa. This is not a new reality on the African continent. That is why we will trace the evolution of writing from its origins up to today and also why the first specimens of writing disappeared without knowing a wide distribution .. 
We will explain and also to understand which direction our writing. 
In our understanding, the writing began in Africa. Consequently, humanity has known many types of writing to various spheres of influences. The longevity of a writing may be short. It depends on the composition and pedagogy of teaching, but no support. 
Writing means three things: 
· Express a conventional idea as hieroglyphics 
· To express its 
· Expressing the same time the sound and content. 
· Writing syllabic; 
· Writing vocalic and consonantal 
· Writing vowel, consonant and phonetic. 
· Thinking and sound. 
· Examples of each type of African writing. 
ONE: WRITING ECHANTION IDEOGRAMMIQUE 
A-THE hieroglyphics: 
The hieroglyphs are the prototypes of the first African writings, even global. Pharaonic Egypt was the center of this civilization was essentially black, hence the term (kemun) designating the color black not only in ancient Egyptian, but also present in Mandinka. 
This writing is a sign of the ideas the same way that the figures express the numbers. If we write a number, it expresses the number beyond even the syllabic or alphabetic pronunciations of consonants and vowels" (Dr Maba Badi)

N'ko yeta-menta ߡߍ߲ߕߊ߫ ߦߋߕߊ. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 May 2017.

                            The Post Classical Age(600-1450 CE)

The figure embodies the spirit of the African Renaissance. When European nations began their Renaissance, they turned to the classical age of Greece and Rome when art and architecture had reached its zenith. San rock art is one of the great archaeological wonders of the world, and it reflects the glories of the African past. This piece of art is located in a South African museum in Cape Town where it has been kept for 85 years since it's founding in 1917. "Our knowledge of South African San texts (especially the 12 000 pages of testimony collected by Dr Bleek), combined with the study of the rituals and beliefs of San people still living in the Kalahari, allows us to understand many of the paintings in the Linton panel. The panel shows people capturing a power the /Xam called !Gi. The San sought and used this power for the benefit of their community ,as it allowed for the healing of the sick and for the healing of divisions within society. San rock art was believed to be rich in this special power"(South African History Online.)
"South African History Online." Towards a peoples history. N.p., 23 Apr. 1908. Web. 25 Apr. 2017. <http://www.sahistory.org.za/>.

 Shown above is the cave drawings found in South Africa throughout created by the Bantu people who populated South Africa during the post classical time period. The images describe dancers at the bottom of the picture to show that during post classical times in South Africa, dance was common. It also shows women gathering for food which is important because typically it is men who do the hunting and gathering. There are also other pictures showing men and women dancing together in Harmony. 
"The Women’s Dance III: Southern Africa." Veleda. N.p., 05 Feb. 2012. Web. 23 Apr. 2017. 

 The picture above represents San Art rock paintings made by the Bushmen tribe of South Africa that are 10,000-15,000 years old. These painting can depict a lot of things ranging from humans to half animal half humans who are predicted as medicine men. A lot of times in these paintings, men are dancing which represents the healers in the community. You can find these rock paintings throughout western Cape Town but many are vandalized with garbage and graffitti. According to Dr Ben Smith, "genetic evidence suggests they are one of the oldest, if not the oldest, peoples in the world, going back to perhaps 60,000 years. They have genetic traces that no one else in the world has, that put them at the root of the human tree - we are related to them, but they are not as closely related to us. They have unique markers that we don’t have".
Foundation, Bradshaw. "The San Bushmen of South Africa." Bradshaw Foundation. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2017. 
 

 
The San Bushmen people of South Africa used to make posion laced arrows as a form of weaponary dating back to 650 CE. This type of weapon was very dangerous and lethal during its time used. Someone could find these throughout old Bushmen tribes located in South Africa and Zimbabwe but none are really carried in museums. There are still Bushmen in the African region who use poison arrows to hunt and fight. 
Foundation, Bradshaw. "The San Bushmen of South Africa." Bradshaw Foundation. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2017. 

 
A griot was a West African storyteller typically yet they have been reported found in Cape Town South Africa dating back to 800 CE. "A griot perpetuated the oral traditions of a family or village. He carries the cultural knowledge and identity of each people.The griot legacy stretches back for hundreds, and in some cases, thousands of years.
The griot is a chronicler of history – keeping track of the history and developments of his people over time" Many are also guardian of the knowledge of his people’s ancestry, or genealogy.

"AfricanStorytellers." The Griots, African Storytellers - Ancient Africa for Kids. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.

GRIOT/Storyteller. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2017. 

 

 

Greece

By: Kyle Wapshott

The pre-classical age (3500-800 B.C.E.)

House of Tiles

After being excavated by the American School of Classical Studies, the architecture found was advanced considering the time period it was built. Created during the Early Helladic period, between 2500 BC-2300 BC, the name "House of Tiles" is because of the number of fired clay roof tiles. The house was two stories tall and erected with sun-dried bricks on stone socles, protected by a tiled roof.
Found in the southernmost rooms were more than 150 clay sealings with the impressions of 60 or more seals (Kitchell, 1996). This evidence hints at the existence of an early system of centralized authority. These seals can also explain the activity of trading amongst Mycenean palaces. Carbon dating can tell us that the fortress was burned to the ground in the 22nd century BC, most likely by Indo-Europeans (Kitchell).

Located in Southern Greece, The House of Tiles was constructed around 2500 BC and was to serve as an administrative center for elite members of the society until being burned to the ground prior to completion.

Kitchell, Kenneth. ""Did Zeus Destroy the House of Tiles?"" Academia.edu - Share Research. N.p., 1996. Web. 16 Feb. 2017.

The Lion Gate of Ancient Mycenae, Greece

Created around 1249 BCE, the Lion Gate served as the main entrance to the ancient city of Mycenae. This acropolis was occupied during the peak of power and influence of the Mycenaean civilization. Built atop a hill and views all the way to the sea, Mycenae was able to defend its civilization easily. According to Greek mythology, the city was founded by Perseus and has an innumerable amount of accounts throughout history. Homer's account of Mycenae describes the citadel as a city of gold, or "golden Mycenae (Sakoulas, n.d.)."

Two Lionesses in a heraldic stature to exemplify the power of Ancient Mycenae

The Lion Gate is very significant because it is the lone standing monumental piece of Mycenaean culture in addition to being the largest sculpture of the Bronze Age in ancient Aegean. The triangle shape provides great pressure distribution and has allowed this monument to withstand the harsh weathers that have occurred in the past 3500 years. The everlasting ruins of this site continue to educate and amaze the multitude of visitors to this archeological site of the rich history it is accompanied with.

Sakoulas, Thomas. "Mycenae." Mycenae. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Feb. 2017. <http://ancient-greece.org/archaeology/mycenae.html>.                         

Terracoda Female Figurines

These figurines from the Late Helladic period resemble the Greek letters phi, tau, and psi

Found in the ancient city of Mycenae, the figurines were made out of terracotta and designed in a way to resemble their Greek letters. The figurines generally would wear some sort of elegant garment and changed depending on the day, almost like a present day Barbie doll. During the period in which this was created, the Greeks were enjoying an era of wealth and prosperity throughout many of their major cities, like Mycenae (Hemingway, n.d.). The Mycenaean's relationship with the Minoans is really displayed in their artwork, specifically the way they paint and carve into their pottery.
The extraordinary amounts of material wealth deposited in the area excavated by Heinrich Schliemann is astounding. The terracotta sculptures were likely to be traded or exchanged being the bold traders the Mycenaean's were, as described in Homer's Odyssey. These figurines are just one of the many different types of gems, pottery, precious metals and glass left behind from the once great and powerful civilization.

Hemingway, Authors: Seán Hemingway Colette. "Mycenaean Civilization. The Metropolitan Museum of Art." The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Feb. 2017. <http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/myce/hd_myce.htm>.                         

Odysseus and the Trojan Horse (Primary)

In Virgil's writing, Aeneid Book 2, he explains the situation that the Achaeans were in during the Trojan War from the viewpoint of a Trojan in the citadel of Troy. Helen, Queen of the Mycenaean city-state of Sparta, was taken by the Trojan Prince, Paris, and brought to their citadel of Troy. In order to get her back home, Odysseus thinks up a risky task in order for him and his men to gain access to the citadel.

The excerpt comes from Aeneas' point of view, son of Trojan's Anchises and Venus, we can tell the great pain he is going through to retell the story. We can infer this pain through what he says in lines 559 to 561, "Then for the first time a wild terror gripped me. I stood amazed: my dear father's image rose before me (Virgil, n.d.)." This is the point of the story where Aeneas sees Helen and realizes why the Greeks have really come in the first place. At first he wants to slaughter her but the Goddess Venus appears and says it is not Helen's fault the war is brewing.  In order to get what Odysseus came for, he uses his wit and courage to return Queen Helen back to Sparta. The Greeks construct a large wooden horse which leads the Trojans to believe it is a war prize as they see the Greek ships returning to their "homeland." Instead, the horse is filled with their best soldiers as the rest of their army wait for the horse to be pulled into the citadel. "Pull the statue to her house and offer prayers to the goddess's of divinity." As night falls the warriors inside the horse sneak out its belly and opens the gate to the rest of their army. "They invade the city that's drowned in sleep and wine, kill the watchmen, welcome their comrades at the open gates (Virgil)."

Despite being caught off-guard during their slumber, Aeneas and his men are able to kill some of the Greeks but are way too outnumbered by them. The city of Troy is set in flames as Aeneas is able to escape to the comfort of his family. "Ah! Son of the goddess, fly, tear yourself from the flames. The enemy has taken the walls: Troy falls from her high place (Virgil)." This is when Aeneas gathers his father and many other followers and leaves the city. With his father on his back he says, "Come then, dear father, clasp my neck: I will carry you on my shoulders: that task won't weigh on me (Virgil)."

Virgil. "Aeneid Book 2." Poetry in Translation. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Feb. 2017. <http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/VirgilAeneidII.htm#anchor_Toc536009318

The Iliad Book 21: Routing of the Trojans (Primary)

Homer's writings in Iliad are a great significance to todays society as it allows us to understand and consume the history of the Greeks. The 21st book begins as the Trojans are sent in retreat by the vengeful warrior Achilles. He continue to seek revenge for the Trojan's slaying of Patroclus at Troy, a close friend of Achilles. "Now look you, verily a great marvel is this that mine eyes behold! In good sooth the great-hearted Trojans that I have slain will rise up again from beneath the murky darkness (Murray, n.d.)." Not only does this show us the great rage he had, but also the role of the gods in everyday life. The god of the river would revive and give strength for second efforts at Achilles but all efforts failed. It called to Apollo for assistance but results in a clash between Achilles and the river. Lines 233-235 in Book 21 tell the readers about the first blood between the two. "He spake, and Achilles, famed for his spear, sprang from the bank and leapt into his midst; but the River rushed upon him with surging flood, and roused all his streams tumultuously, and swept along the many dead that lay thick within his bed, slain by Achilles (Murray)."

This Incident snowballs into a great fight among the gods and goddesses. Athena, Ares, Aphrodite, Poseidon, Hermes, and Hera are all among those involved with the commotion. As this continues, Priam opens the gates to Troy to allow the Trojans to flee inside their walls. Apollo is able to lure Achilles away because he takes the form of Agenor, a Phoeneian King. "But Apollo by craft kept the son of Peleus away from the folk, for likened in all things to Agenor's self the god that worketh afar took his stand before his feet; and Achilles rushed upon him swiftly to pursue him(Murray)." 

Murray, A. T. "HOMER, ILIAD BOOK 21." HOMER, ILIAD BOOK 21 - Theoi Classical Texts Library. Theoi Project, n.d. Web. 02 Mar. 2017. <http://www.theoi.com/Text/HomerIliad21.html>.

Homer: About the Author (Secondary)

As historians continue to unfold the truths of Ancient Greece it is crucial to have an understanding of not only what you're reading, but also whom it was who wrote it. I came across a brief, well worded analysis of the ancient poet, Homer. A man that we really don't have a firm grasp of understanding. At the moment, most scholars would agree that these writings were of a man with greater intelligence who used older oral traditions nearly 3,000 years ago. We also do not know how much later poets added or changed to the text throughout the duration of its existence.

When comparing Homer's poems to an Egyptian writer, Homer tends to be more objective. "An Egyptian text leaves no doubt that the enemy of pharaoh are evil impersonated. Homer, on the other hand, offers a balanced judgment of the Trojans and Greeks (Lendering, n.d)."  This objectivity is rare in ancient literature due to the fact that not too many people wanted to admit defeat but Homer has no problem doing so. This may be Homer's greatest contribution to western civilization and writings even today. Not only is he appreciated 3,000 years down the road, the ancient Greeks showed their appreciation through their Apotheosis of Homer. A huge marble slab admiring "the poet," a name very often used to refer to him.

Lendering, Jona. "Homer." Homer - Livius. Livius, n.d. Web. 06 Mar. 2017. <http://www.livius.org/articles/person/homer/>.

              

Mycenaean Customs (Secondary)

The Mycenaean style of architecture was the stepping stone for later Archaic and Classical temples around the world of Greece. Their unique complexes, Megarons, were built with a hall as the central point surrounded by a "fortification wall of large unworked blocks." These massive stones are told to be moved by the Cyclopes but nevertheless they were up to 13m in height and 8m thick. In addition to a central place of gathering, the palace offered a "Queen's Megaron," hallways with large arching walkways, and private apartments for administration (Cartwright, 2013)." Rooms were richly decorated with fresco paintings on the walls and plaster painted floors." It is clear that the civilization really praised quality work to create such an influential palace during the Bronze Age for the rest of the known world to admire.

 When looking at their artwork we can see the outer world influences in their works. "In art as expressed in fresco, pottery and jewelry, the Minoan love of natural forms and flowing design was likewise adopted by the Mycenaean artisans but with a tendency to more schematic and less life-like representation (Cartwright)." This style would eventually become the dominant style throughout the Mediterranean lands. Terracotta figurines (as pictured  above) were very popular in addition to ivory and other carved vessels. The frescoes located inside the palace "depicted plants, griffins, lions, bull-leaping, battle scenes, warriors, chariots, figure-of-eight shields and boar hunts, a particularly popular Mycenaean activity (Cartwright)." The strange ending of the Mycenaean civilization came around 1200 BCE where the multitude of artifacts and stories would be stored away for curious historians to stumble upon it again one day.  

Cartwright, Mark. "Mycenaean Civilization." Ancient History Encyclopedia. Creative Commons, Apr.-May 2013. Web. 06 Mar. 2017. <http://www.ancient.eu/Mycenaean_Civilization/>.

The Classical Age (800 BCE- 500 CE)

Photo taken at the Cleveland Museum of Art

By: Kyle Wapshott

Apollo the Python- Slayer

Created around 350 BC, this sculpture really displays the time and effort put forth by Praxiteles, a Greek Sculptor. Praxiteles' work flourished between 370 BC and 330 BC and had great influence on Greek sculpture through his gentle grace and sensuous charm."Androgynous sensuality and languid, gracefully curved poses are hallmarks of his style (Cle Museum of Art, 2017)." Made of bronze, copper and stone inlay, the man hours to complete this will forever be unknown. "Technical features such as the way the sculpture was cast and repaired in antiquity, the copper inlays of the lips and nipples, and the stone insert for the right eye (the left is a restoration) are consistent with a date in the 4th century BC (Cle Museum of Art)."  His sculpture of the youthful python-slayer, Apollo, "most likely showed the young god pulling back a slender laurel tree with his raised left hand, while holding an arrow at waist level with his right, poised to strike the lizard creeping up the tree(Cle Museum of Art)." The museum's sculpture is the only known life-size bronze version of Apollo the python slayer around the world.This sculpture is significant still to our time because it shows us how great things can be created with and without the technology we have today. Here is an excellent example of where time and effort surpassed anyone's expectations creating the only lasting, full-body sculpture of Apollo known to man.
                    

"Apollo the Python-Slayer." Cleveland Museum of Art. N.p., 18 Mar. 2017. Web. 23 Mar. 2017. <http://www.clevelandart.org/art/2004.30.a>.

Taken at the Cleveland Museum of Art

By: Kyle Wapshott

Alexander the Great

This marble head of Alexander III of Macedon is one of many around the world made to recognize the most successful military commander in history. Despite Alexander living only 32 years (356-323 BC), "He had conquered the Greek mainland, Egypt, the Near East, including the Persian Empire, and had marched as far east as the Hyphasis River in India (Cle Museum of Art, 2017)." Aristotle tutored Alex from the age of 13 gave him an annotated copy of Homer's Illiad. "He brought this with him on his campaigns, always striving to emulate the uncompromising heroism of Achilles (Cle Museum of Art)." This 2nd century BC sculpture is significant because it can show and tell us about a time period critical to the development of the world as we know it. Additionally, the recognition of this commander shows the appreciation and love for Alex by the rest of the citizens of the Greek state. The military career of Alexander spread Greek culture and language throughout the known world and would soon set the stage for the Hellenistic period, the rise of the Roman Empire, and establishment of Christianity.

 "Head of Alexander the Great." Cleveland Museum of Art. N.p., 18 Mar. 2017. Web. 23 Mar. 2017. <http://www.clevelandart.org/art/1927.209>.

A marble replica of the ancient bronze statue

Discobolus ("The Discus Thrower")

Created by Myron between 480 BC and 440 BC this marble sculpture is the best example of the style of art flourishing around this time. Originally made out of bronze, many replicas have been created to show the beauty of harmony and balance of humans in addition to the appreciation for this ancient statue. During the Classical Age is when we see human anatomy really take off and displayed greatly in their art. "Portraying people in a static and stiff position had now been replaced with the more modern 'snap-shot' three-dimensional movements, so that people could admire the human body for its aesthetic values (Minoan Art)." This is shown in the great amount of potential energy expressed in his torso and upper body. Additionally, the lack of expression is very clear in the sculptures created during this time due to the fact that Barbarians were thought to be shown with very dramatic facial expressions. "This was because the Greeks believed that the suppression of emotions was a noble characteristic of all civilized men, while the public display of human emotion was a sign of barbarism (Minoan Art)." Logic and reason was to come first even during the most chaotic of situations.  

"Minoan Art." Sculpture and Art in Ancient Greece. University Press Inc, n.d. Web. 01 Apr. 2017. <http://ancientgreece.com/s/Sculpture/>.

Politics by Aristotle (Primary)

Aristotle’s ancient writings dating back nearly 2500 years old has been a significant piece of history when studying ancient civilizations. When looking specifically at the political structure and its operations during this time, Aristotle provides a fairly clear document about man and their political communities. He writes, “Every community is established with a view to some good; for mankind always act in order to obtain that which they think good (Aristotle).” This is logical in some aspects and explains how people come together with common mindset to unify for some kind of good. The city-state, polis, is the common and most general community and contains all of the smaller associations like families and business/trade partners. They as a whole need to aim to achieve the highest good and must have “a union of those who cannot exist without each other.”

            When he goes further to conclude how it’s natural for man to be a ‘political animal’ we can see the way he believes a city-state in order to operate as efficient as possible. You can only achieve the good in life when operating as a citizen of a state, one with political order, a system of ruling, and citizens with like-minded perceptions of the sense of goodness. “It is a characteristic of man that he alone has any sense of good and evil, of just and unjust, and the like, and the association of living beings who have this sense makes a family and a state.” For those who do not have or belong to a state, Aristotle believes they are awful. “And he who by nature and not by mere accident is without a state, is either a bad man or above humanity (Aristotle).” Although to him they may seem “Tribeless, lawless, and hearthless,” this may be due to his extreme belief that an association is necessary for goodness. In my opinion, a man without a state could be a man lost in a struggle which can be overcome by allowing the influence of other nations whom developed faster than the man without state into their boundaries. The lost man needs guidance that may not be available where he resides. This is where the outer influence is able to spread their ways and continue the development of the known world as a whole.

Aristotle. "The Internet Classics Archive | Politics by Aristotle." Politics by Aristotle. Internet Classics Archive, n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2017. <http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/politics.1.one.html>.                         

The Golden Age (Secondary)

The golden age was a prosperous time for Greece under the rule of Pericles during the period of 500 BC to about 300 BC.  It was during this time when great writers, philosophers, and artists emerged and changed the norm of almost every aspect of ancient Greece. Herodotus, Socrates, Hippocrates, Phidias, and Aeschylus are just a few of the many crucial figures who's long lasting influence is still significant today when looking at the rich Greek history. Joshua Mark, the author of the source, attaches hyperlinks to their names for further information and a biography of their great lives. The legacy of the brilliant Athenian's continued as Plato, student of Socrates, built an academy which would remain standing for 300 years and continued to teach Plato's philosophy long after his death. Aristotle, student of Plato, would then move on to make his own school called "Lyceum." The enthusiasm for knowledge is clear during this time in ancient Greece as we see it snowball into a war which will destroy the once immaculate Athens, Greece.

The Peloponnesian War was started when Athens sent troops to aid Sparta in a rebellion on Spartan soil. When the Athenian troops arrived, the Spartans refused and forced them to return home in dishonor. This sparked great frustration leading to Greece's civil war. The war involved almost all of Greece although it were mainly Athens and Sparta. The war ended in disaster and Athens was defeated. "Her empire and her wealth gone, her walls destroyed, only her reputation as a great seat of learning and culture prevented the sack of the city and the enslavement of the populace (Mark, 2011)." After being defeated in 338 BCE, Athens was under Macedonian rule until the Roman general, Sulla, conquered the land but refused to allow his army to burn the remains of the city. The golden age was an enlightening time as brilliant Athenians emerged and created an ever-lasting legacy.



Mark, Joshua J. "Athens." Ancient History Encyclopedia. Creative Commons, 28 Apr. 2011. Web. 06 Apr. 2017. <http://www.ancient.eu/Athens/>.

Hellenistic Philosophy (Secondary)

At this time citizens are beginning to feel more like a small element in a large political machine, the people no longer regarded their city-state as their main focus. The Greek citizens lost hope in the idea of loyalty towards their home state which really sparked cultural and religious alternatives to fulfil the interests of inhabitants of a large cosmopolitan society. From this, the Epicureans, the Skeptics, and the Stoics emerge giving people an outlet for their frustrations towards their polis. These philosophers were appealing to the citizens in Greece because they promoted personal serenity and tranquility, a newer subject during this time. The different philosophies taking place during the times of the ancient Greek and Roman phases in the Mediterranean Society has allowed us to understand more deeply of how human beings thought.
The Epicureans identified pleasure as the greatest good in terms of a state of quiet satisfaction, not overbearing hedonism. Epicurus was the Philosopher to bring about these ideas and obtained this knowledge at Plato's Academy in Athens, Greece. His motto was "lathe biosas" which translates to "live unobtrusively". "He foreshadows utilitarianism by suggesting that a society should be arranged to provide the greatest happiness to the greatest number(Boeree, 2000)" Epicureanism was very popular in the later Roman ages along with the other two main philosophies, Stoicism and Skepticism.
Stoicism was founded by Seno of Citium and much like other people during this time, was influenced by Socrates. The Stoics believe that all human beings are members of a universal family. "Stoics believed in certain “natural rights,” a concept which we don't  see again until the 18th century(Boeree)." The belief in the right to commit suicide is also a part of their cultural tradition as we see it take a great effect in Roman culture. Instead of seeking to withdrawal from the "pressures of the world," they taught others to aid those who need it.
Skepticism was founded by Pyrrho of Elis who studied with the "gymnosophists" in India (naked lovers of wisdom). It is here where he develops his idea of nothing can be known for certain, an idea still thought of today. Pyrrho of Elis's influence was shown in Plato's Academy where a student, Carneades of Cyrene, argues both sides of an issue. He says, "There is absolutely no criterion for truth. For reason, senses, ideas, or whatever else may exist are all deceptive (Boeree)."

Boeree, George. "Epicureans and Stoics." Epicureans and Stoics. N.p., 2000. Web. 09 Apr. 2017. <http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/latergreeks.html>.

The Post-Classical Age (500 C.E.-1300 C.E.)

Byzantine Mosaic

A Byzantine Mosaic from 527 to 565 AD. Really shows the Christian influence during the rule of Emperor Justinian I. Justinian

The Byzantine Empire was influenced heavily by Christianity. "To be specific, Eastern Orthodox Christianity was practiced in Byzantium, a religion still practiced today (Penfield, 2017)." The art found from the Byzantine Empire usually is a mosaic consisting of different Christian themes. These mosaics were quite the work of art due to the consuming amounts of work gluing together small individual pieces of glass to form a bigger picture or idea.  Justinian created a set of laws around the time this mosaic was created which established that the emperor "made all and interpreted all laws(Penfield)." These laws are still significant today because many of our own laws today stem from the Justinian Code. Although the Byzantine Empire really considered themselves as Romans, the East was influenced by the Greek culture. Alexander the Great's conquests allowed for trade and education to thrive while Justinian strived to unite the Roman Empire."Under Justinian,all Pagan remnants, including all the philosophy schools, were closed forcing Athens to become a provincial town with little culture or influence(Penfield)." Even the Parthenon was turned into a Eastern Orthodox Church! The post-classical age marks the start of the Christianity spread across the world.

"The Byzantine Empire." Emperor Justinian and the Byzantine Empire. Penfield, n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2017. <http://www.penfield.edu/webpages/jgiotto/onlinetextbook.cfm?subpage=1679589>.

Ivory Plaque with Mother of God (Mary)

Estimated to be created around 950 CE, this ivory plaque shows the Christianity takeover in Byzantium, Constantinople.

Here we see an intricate plaque that really shows the huge influence Christianity played in Europe. The enthroned Virgin Mary and Christ have been exemplified in this area dating back to as early as 6th century CE. The throne is carved very carefully and the time consumption is very clear. The angels above the two show the eminency of Mary and Christ in the Christian religion and how important they were to those who followed this religion, specifically Eastern Orthodox. This is a reoccurring picture we see in Byzantine art and is still significant today because we see it in various places where Christianity has an influence. "With one hand raised in blessing, the other holding a scroll, Christ is portrayed here as an emotionless and supernatural child, visualizing for the pious beholder the mystery of his incarnation (Cle Museum of Art, 2017)". "The Council of Ephesus decided in 431 that Mary is the Theotokos because her son Jesus is both God and man: one divine person with two natures (divine and human) intimately and hypostatically united." Theotokos is a Greek word loosely translated to "mother of god" (Cle Museum of Art, 2017).


"Ivory Plaque with Enthroned Mother of God ("The Stroganoff Ivory")." Cleveland Museum of Art. N.p., 22 Apr. 2017. Web. 24 Apr. 2017. <http://www.clevelandart.org/art/1925.1293?collection_search_query=medieval%2Bgreece&op=search&form_build_id=form-9szo4VrGLBAAzyoj4hq7lKmIhgPdQyIFqi0KTTDGx3w&form_id=clevelandart_collection_search_form

Short Sword from the Court of Suleyman the Magnificent

Ottoman short sword with exquisite craftsmanship

Created in the workshop of Ahmed Tekelu, this "Yatagan" is expertly crafted with steel, gold, walrus tusk, silver, pearls, and rubies. Made in 1526, it was intended to be used by the Ottoman sultan Suleyman the Magnificent. Under Suleyman, the empire reached the top of their political and armed forces power. Today we define these times as the "Golden Age" of Turkey in which "The Magnificent" reigned (Met Museum of Art, 2017).   The time spent to craft this piece is definitely significant. "The gold incrustation on the blade depicts a combat between a dragon and a phoenix against a background of foliate scrolls." The figures are inspired by Chinese works and is said to be introduced to the Ottoman empire through contact through trade with the Persian empire. This sword is significant because it can tell us about the relationships and influences on the Ottoman art at this time. It is said that this sword is one of the earliest known "yatagans," a guard less sword typically used in Muslim countries. "Turkish weapons are typically characterized by a double-curved blade and a hilt without a guard (Short Sword)".

"Short Sword (Yatagan) from the Court of Süleyman the Magnificent | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art." The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Apr. 2017. <http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1993.14/>.

Letter of the Knights of St. John on Rhodes (Primary)
On June 30th 1453 the Convent of the order of St. John on Rhodes writes a letter to the Margrave of Brandenburg in Jerusalem. It is the Convent telling the Margrave about the Byzantine-Ottoman War, specifically the fall of the Byzantine capital of Constantinople. They write,"After the great Turk had besieged Constantinople by land and sea, on the twenty-ninth of the May just passed he seized the city by force of arms, killed the emperor of Constantinople, cut off the heads of many nobles, gave the entire city over to plunder, and cruelly tortured many"(North, 1983). This is Mehmed II they are describing as they continue on to say how he wants to prepare a fleet from scratch and make all of the islands of the Aegean archipelago subject to him or else. We then get another warning of what Mehmed II wants to do when the Convent writes, "He also threatens that he will attempt to do what Alexander never did...push into Italy and the regions of the West with his arms and might and see whether fortune shall favor him there as it has throughout the East" (North).  This text is significant because we as historical analyzers are able to almost feel their emotions through the way they talk.

North, W.L. "Letter of the Knights of St John." Letter of the Knights of St. John on Rhodes Which Was Sent to Jerusalem to the Margrave of Brandenburg (n.d.): n. pag. Carleton.edu. 1983. Web. May 2017. <https://apps.carleton.edu/curricular/mars/assets/Letter_of_the_Knights_of_St_John_for_MARS_website.pdf>.

Medieval Education in Europe


During the High Middle Ages, education in Europe was quite foreign and not popular. "It is estimated that by 1330, only 5% of the total population of Europe received any sort of education" (Havlidis). Schools during the medieval times were mostly only available to sons of high lords and those whos jobs required them to be educated such as eminent figures.
During the Crusades is when education was intermingled with the various cultures fighting in the "Holy War." It is then where we see the Eastern education really have influence in the West. The "madrasas" of Islam caught the eye of

the Western countries of the Mediterranean basin. Starting in 1088 we begin to see these places of higher learning emerge throughout Europe. Bologna, Italy was first to begin and was said to be “self regulated” working under the guide of a civil authority. “University education, across the whole of the continent, was a luxury to which only the wealthiest and brightest could ever aspire” (Havlidis). Due to the fact that these students, ranging from 14 to 30 years of age, Students were frequently criticised in the middle ages for neglecting their studies in favour of drinking, gambling and sleeping with prostitutes. 

Havlidis, Dimitris Romeo. "Medieval Education in Europe: Schools & Universities." Lost Kingdom Fantasy Writing, Roleplaying and Worldbuilding Resources. N.p., 21 Mar. 2015. Web. 04 May 2017. <http://www.lostkingdom.net/medieval-education-in-europe/>.                         




Byzantine-Ottoman Wars: Fall of Constantinople (Secondary) 

The Byzantine-Ottoman Wars (1265-1453) was a slow building battle between the two cultures and its peak took place in Constantinople, current day Istanbul, when Mehmed II decided he wanted to reduce the Byzantine capital along with Constantine XI in 1451. Constantine XI requested to Pope Nicholas V for aid but he could only find some 700 people due to the blocked waterways by the Ottomans. Clearly outnumbered in terms of troops and weapons, Constantine's walls initially performed well against the Ottoman's slow reloading cannons and weapons. "To prevent a naval attack against the Golden Horn walls, he directed that a large chain be stretched across the mouth of the harbor to block Ottoman ships from entering" (Hickman, 2017). This chain held up for two days until Mehmed directed his troops to use "greased logs" to get through the obstacle successfully. In order to quickly eliminate this new threat, "Constantine directed that the Ottoman fleet be attacked with fire ships on April 28, a method of war influenced by its neighbor Greece" (Hickman, 2017). Mehmed continued to show his creativity by ordering his troops to start digging mines but were quickly intercepted by Byzantine engineer Johannes Gran whom eliminated all mines in one week with the help of his tortured Turkish prisoners of war.

Although the Byzantine's defense has held up fairly well for being strongly outnumbered, the toll on the troops strength and energy was clear. This is when Mehmed calls his troops for rest and prayer before taking another shot at the capital under a dark, dense fog. Due to an open door, "the Ottomans poured into the city. Though Constantine's exact fate is not known, it is believed that he was killed leading a last desperate attack against the enemy"(Hickman, 2017).

Pope Nicholas V calls for help to recover the city but no one steps forward to help. The Byzantine- Ottoman wars are significant, especially the fall of Constantinople due to the fact that we see it as the end of the Middle Age and marks the beginning of the Renaissance. The Ottoman Empire held this capital until it collapsed after World War 1.

Hickman, Kennedy. "End of an Era: The Fall of Constantinople." ThoughtCo. About Inc, 2017. Web. 25 Apr. 2017. <https://www.thoughtco.com/byzantine-ottoman-wars-fall-of-constantinople-2360739>.

Conclusion:

Greece's ancient civilizations acted as a stepping stone for future civilizations to thrive and advance economically and culturally. Their pristine craftsmanship can be found in museums across the globe due to the great history and beauty accompanied with their work. The Greek ancient history regarding their gods and goddesses can be found around the globe because of its unique, original stories that the citizens of the country once shared and followed strictly. The Greeks blended with many other cultures around the Mediterranean basin and their influence can be seen in their art. For example, the high middle ages brought about Christianity to its max. It is during this time where almost all I can find on the Greek culture has something to do with Christ or his followers. The Greek civilization contributed to world civilizations in terms of craftsmanship and developments that are still able to stand today.
Overtime, the rise and fall of the numerous civilizations in Greece has really made studying these Greeks very interesting. The first country to hold the Olympic games, the multitude of wars, the brilliant philosophers whose ideas changed the known worlds understanding and way of thinking- The list is never ending with the amazing things you can research about this one of a kind civilization.
Todays Greece has dug themselves a great hole of debt that has really impacted their economy in terms of currency flow and development. In 2002 when they left the Drachma for the European Euro, they thought the new unified currency and being a member of the European Union would settle the controversial disputes they were having in regards to reporting their real tax dollars to whomever is in charge. In 2017, Greece still owes over 100 billion Euros to a number of different sources and has even went as low as selling their historical landmarks and artifacts to begin the trek back to a sustainable economy.
We in the West grow up learning about the Greeks and their Gods as early as Elementary School. We grow to learn of the rich history of this civilization and the beautiful place it has become, wishing to visit when we see the great blue sea of the Mediterranean on television or in textbooks. In addition, their olive and olive oil production has changed the way of life for those looking for a healthy snack or non-stick coating on their pans. The country of Greece is one that all should look into, especially with everyone walking with their phones in front of them already, get EDUCATED!