Argentina

Chris Corrigan

4/4/2017

Argentina Project

The pre-classical age (3500-800 B.C.E.)

Images

Some of the earliest known arts in western south America have been found near the Andes which touch Argentina culture.  Near the Andenes Valdivia peoples produced small stone and ceramic figurines. Slabs of clay were able to be compressed and molded together creating different pieces of art.

These clay pieces of art were predominantly female. The figures expressed females through the various parts of their lives. Yet not all of these figurines were female. Some of them were male! This got a little more interesting as two bodies would be combined into one. Such as the figure pictured above. This figurine shows two females heads on one female body. This is a mystery of why the artist did this. Yet, it is understood that this is “commonly interpreted as fertility figures and/or guardian spirits.”(Mid Article)

Campbell, Thomas P. "Double-Headed Figure." The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The MET, 2008. Web. 02 Mar. 2017. <http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1980.34.1/>.

This sculpture was found in Atlantis, which is a lost kingdom of the Andes. This sculpture resembles a god who rose from the sea in ancient Sumerian land.

The sculpture represents the importance of fish during this ancient time. To survive the people in Argentina area would have to hunt or gather! Those who were by the oceans would fish. Those who were inland would hunt. This artifact deals with fishing meaning that it came from the coast. In this case, the coast off the Andes.

Jim Allen. Bolivia and the Sumerian connection. n.d. Web. 3 Mar. 2017. <http://www.atlantisbolivia.org/boliviaandthesumerianconnection.htm>.

This is a Stirrup-spout Bottle from the 12th century. It was found near Argentina. This bottle was part of Cupisnique culture! Cupisnique people settled in what we know as Peru today.

The bottle is made to a “visual reminiscent of a stirrup on a horse's saddle.”(Mid Article) These bottles were partially liked in Peru. For thousands of years, these bottles were handcrafted in different shapes and sizes. Yet this bottle above is Cupisnique. The cupisnique style was distinguished by size, depiction, and surface treatment. Cupisnique style bottles are always “Strong and squat in shape.”(Bottom article)

Thomas Campbell. Stirrup-spout bottle | work of art | Heilbrunn Timeline of art history | the metropolitan museum of art. The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, 2000. Web. 3 Mar. 2017. <http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1981.247/>.

Sources

People being able to settle caused “Growing populations” that “keep living in villages.”(Norther Andes, first paragraph). This was made possible as people were able to grow and harvest crops. This was a great advancement as people no longer had to be hunters and gathers. People were able to settle, living in one place.

Settlement was a great thing as people were able to be more skilled in different jobs. People were now specialed. This led to huge advancements, as people only had one important task to deal with as opposed to many. The people did what they excelled at. “Large quantities of ceramic as well as textile production was widespread”(Norther Andes, first paragraph) as result of this specialization.

One of the biggest changes due to settlement was forms of government. “Class distinctions are between chiefs and their families, chiefs of lower rank, and commoners”. (Norther Andes, first paragraph) There was more than just different levels of class. There were different jobs that went into each of classes.  “Artisans, religious specialists, merchants, and warriors are from a different

Ani Gomez. Weebly, 2004, southamerica-arthistory.weebly.com/

    1400ndash1600-ad.html. Accessed 10 Apr. 2017.

The early Andean culture never reached those technological advancements like those did in ancient Mesopotamia. The ancient Andes people and their descendants the Incus, didnt uses wheels or writing until 3000 years after the ancient Mesopotamians.

Yet it wasn't all bad for the ancient Andes people. Archaeologist founds that they had many advancements, “their ability to construct planned communities and grand structures, organize labor, create art and devise a political system”(Steven, Williams).

The planned communities were formed shortly after agriculture took place. This allowed for people to settle, creating organized labor. Also it promoted creativity as people were able to focus on more than just getting by. It is understood that the ancient Andes “took a developmental path different from that of the Old World and even from that of Central America” (Stevens, William K) This is because “the Andean civilization appears to have been more diffuse and decentralized because the isolated valleys forced it to develop that way” (Stevens, William K).

Stevens, William K. "Andean Culture found to be as Old as the Greaty Pyramids." New York Times, Late Edition (East Coast) ed.Oct 03 1989. ProQuest. Web. 26 Mar. 2017 .

Some form of standardized weights were found in the ancient Andes. Anthropologist Erland Nordenskiold proposed this idea in the early 1900s. Nordenskiold hypothesised that “They were measured in multiples of a basic unit that he called "H," for huarcu”(Sullivan, Walter) The word huarcu meant weight in two Andean languages.

He found nine identical pebbles in a small bag, supporting his idea. Yet his findings were not strongly supported until the findings of the beam balances. The beam balances were found throughout the Andes. Yet these balances still didn't seem standardized, they were more local. “it was assumed they were used locally for comparative measurements, rather than in terms of a widely used standard” (Sullivan, Walter)

When the spaniards arrived universal standardized measurements came into play. The “discovery of two copper ingots”(Sullivan, Walter) supported the standardized system. Yet there are not many hard facts supporting the system. The best thing that was found was “a value of 3.80 grams (0.134 ounces) for H” (Sullivan, Walter). There is still a decent amount of uncertainly about the system but, what was found “offers new insights into control of commodities, organization of production and circulation of goods in the pre-Hispanic Andes."(Stephen M. Epstein, an anthropologist at the University of Pennsylvania)

Sullivan, Walter. "Ancient Weights in the Andes." New York Times, Late Edition (East Coast) ed.Nov 22 1994. ProQuest. Web. 26 Mar.2017.4

The classical age (800 B.C.E.-500 C.E.)

Images

It’s hard to find any information on Argentina in the pre-Columbian age. Before Europeans came to Argentina it was very thinly populated. In the Northwest part of the country, people grew crops such as potatoes and squash. They sometimes lived in walled towns and they were able to melt metal and made items out of pottery. However, most of these indigenous people lived by hunting animals and gathering plants. Many continued their hunter-gatherer lifestyle until late into 19th century.

The above figure is interpreted to be a person praying to a deity most probably for good hunting or crops

"Finest selection of Art, Antiques and Historical Objects." CuratorsEye, 2007,

    www.curatorseye.com/C=Buy-Ancient-Art&ID=101. Accessed 9 Apr. 2017. Had a

    hard time finding exact link, but this is very close

The earliest traces of human inhabitation in this area of South America dates back to 11,00 BC, although the indigenous cultures of Argentina were less-developed than those of other neighboring countries like Peru. In the mountain areas they planted but further south, the indigenous people remained mostly hunter-gatherers. Some of the most notable cultures include the Aguada, in the North West Guarani in the northeast who farmed yuca and sweet potato and the Mapuche in the central areas who unified many of the nomadic cultures.

All along their art remained simple but well done. The theme as always is a deity, or god, being protected by the chameleons.

"The Artifacts Of The America's." Pinterest, 2008, www.pinterest.com/DeskNet/

    the-artifacts-of-the-americas/. Accessed 2 May 2017.

Here again is the same theme as the one before. It is incredible that the chameleons and the God in the middle are nearly identical to the other one. This piece of art represents a reference the growing of food.

"The Artifacts Of The America's." Pinterest, 2008, www.pinterest.com/DeskNet/

    the-artifacts-of-the-americas/. Accessed 8 April 2017.

Sources

Farms in the sky, a new form of agriculture to Argentina. The Andes mountains were greatly populated. Yet, it was hard for people to survive as crop was not easily accessible. That is until farms in the sky were created. "These farmers engage in some of the highest-altitude agriculture in the world"(O'Brien, page 1).  

The landscape was considered to be Alpine, with lots of rocks in the soil. The soil was very nutritious with "low-growing grass dotted with delicate wildflowers and moss." (O'Brien, page 2).  Yet, what was interesting was that nothing grew taller than our ankles.

Not everything grew great in the sky farms but potatoes grew extraordinary well. Along with the potatoes, fava beans grew very well. There was more than just crops in these farms in the sky. They had livestock, such as llama, alpaca, and sheep! The farms were a great advancement. "they say that in time of the Inca Empire no one went hungry "(O'Brien, page 2).

O'Brein, Caitlin. "Farms in the Sky." EarthIsland, Earthland journal, pp. 22-26.

Machu Picchu a beautiful Peruvian city that sits high in the sky. Machu Picchu stands 2430 M above sea level. That is about 1.5 miles above sea level! As you can imagine this city of Machu Picchu sits in the Andean mountains. Just like the farms in the sky, Machu Picchu was very advanced for its time. The way the city was laid out was nothing short of extraordinary. It was truly the “most amazing urban creation of the Inca Empire at its height; its giant walls, terraces and ramps seem as if they have been cut naturally in the continuous rock escarpments” (Silvan Rehfeld, first paragraph).

Machu Picchu is located between the Peruvian Andes and the Amazon Basin. It was landscaped to be different from anything else in the world. The land was very artistic but also agriculturally fertile. Machu Picchu is the “most significant tangible legacy of the Inca civilization” (Silvan Rehfeld, second paragraph). More than just the structure of the city was the culture and natural values. “The approximately 200 structures making up this outstanding religious, ceremonial, astronomical and agricultural centre are set on a steep ridge, crisscrossed by stone terraces” (Silvan Rehfeld, fourth paragraph).

The city was well laid out as there are two part, a lower and a higher level. The low level is meant for agriculture as the high level is for residencies. Between these levels was a well put together road-trail system. They even had irrigation canals, which is still useful today!

I know i'm not supposed to use a picture for this portion but Machu Picchu is too cool not to!

Rehfeld, Silvan. "Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu." Unesco, World Heritage

    Convention, Apr. 2007, whc.unesco.org/en/list/274. Accessed 1 May 2017.

Now this final classical secondary source does not just focus on Argentina. It focuses on all of the world and how it changes during this time. This gives us a good idea of how civilization as a whole was moving forward.

As time moves on things advance. New technologies are put in place to solve problems and make survival easy. Through this project we have seen how people “began to produce food, adopt new forms of social organization, and interact more intensively with one another over longer distances than in any earlier times”(Stephen K. Sanderson, page one). Which is huge as communication was scarce and food production was basically non existent in the pre classical age.

World population continued to increase in the first millennium BCE. More cities began to appear, in a more improved way. “States, which first emerged in Big Era Three as a way of organizing large populations under a single governing authority, now appeared in new forms that were bigger, more complex, and more efficient” (Stephen K. Sanderson, page one). Yet the most important thing that advanced mankind as a whole was Interregional systems of communication. This enabled technologies, goods, and ideas to move thousands of miles. Which interlocked “networks of roads, trails, and sea lanes connected almost all parts of Afro Eurasia and, in the Americas, extensive areas of Mesoamerica and the Andean mountain spine of South America”(Stephen K. Sanderson, page two).

These connections created a new belief systems. A system that “invited peoples of differing languages and cultural traditions to share common standards of morality and trust”(Stephen K. Sanderson, page two). This was huge as to seems to be the start of common standards of morality. Such as the accepted norms we live by today.

-One last thing I found interesting from this source. Look at the change in population over this time period. Huge increase!

Sanderson, Stephen K. "Expanding Networks of Exchange and Encounter 1200 BCE -

    500 CE." History For Us All, UCLA in cooperation with San Diego State

    University, worldhistoryforusall.sdsu.edu/eras/era4.php. Accessed 4 May

    2017.

The post-classical age (500 C.E.-1300 C.E.)

Images

This is a Wari Figural Vessel playing the Pan Pipe. Wari culture survived from 600- 1000 AD in the highland of Peru touching the top most, north/west, corner of Argentina. They had no written language but we have numerous clay/ceramic pieces that help us understand their society.

This man is holding a “knopped club”(Jose Antonio Lavalle, page one) while wearing a tie-dye tunic. This shows a circle pattern in stepped segments. Yet it also shows large earplugs along with a circle patterned headband. If you look closely at the headband you will see white-tipped blades. This should paint a good picture of what the culture looked like. What is also interesting is that Pan Pipes are still popular in the region where this piece was found.

Lavalle, Jose Antonio. "Wari Figural Vessel with Pan Pipe ca. A.D. 600-1000."

    Sotheby's, 16 May 2014, www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2014/

    african-oceanic-n09146/lot.206.html. Accessed 1 May 2017. The author listed

    is the original author/historian from 1880s.

Again coming from the highlands in Peru near the corner of Argentina this is actually a Vessel in the shape of a human head. Much of the art from this time is based on the human form in one way or the other.

This piece of art dates from 500 CE to 400 CE. It is made from terracotta and comes from Peruvian culture. This piece was found in Peru and is close to human size as it measures 85 x 125 x 101 mm.

"Explore Ecuador Carchi, America Ecuador." Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts,

    Pinterest, Apr. 2011, www.pinterest.com/pin/374150681513347659/. Accessed 2

    May 2017.

This is a ceramic Alpaca or Llama, which came from the Wari Empire. The Wari empire was the first society in the sierra region of the Andes. This was a very complexed empire that established in the “Ayacucho region of Peru during the Middle Horizon (between about AD 550 and 900)” (K. Kris Hirst, page one).

The Wari people grew corn and potatoes. Yet, they mostly were good at producing ceramic items such as the one above. “They were connected into a trading network across the Andes, in which figurines, ceramic vessels, textiles and metal objects were made in Wari and traded out” (K. Kris Hirst, page one). The government was also very structured to the Wari people. The “Wari state including the ruling elite, minor officials and artisans”(K. Kris Hirst, page two). This is where that piece of ceramic came from. You can see the culture in it, as the Alpaca/Llama was a necessity to the Wari People.

Hirst, K. Kris. "Wari Empire Andean Pre-Columbian Society." ThoughtCo, 25 Dec.

    2013, www.thoughtco.com/wari-empire-precolumbian-society-173239. Accessed 2

    May 2017.

Sources

The Post-Classical age in South America can be broken down into three parts: the Middle Horizon, the late intermediate and the late Horizon period. During the Middle Horizon, Andean civilization was combined by two great nations: the Wari Empire in the north and the Tiwanaku Empire in the south. “This period marks the rise of the first cities in South America; thus, Andean civilization was born during the Middle Horizon.” The cultures of these empires were similar. “Like Mesoamerica, the Andean region features a base culture: the Chavin culture, which grew into and became the foundation of subsequent Andean cultures culminating in the Incas in what is called the late horizon period.

The Incas, and their predecessors, used Mnemonic aids made of an array of small cords to keep track of information. Since they had no actual written language, over time, much accurate history was lost. Although they had no written language they were by no means backwards. They build some very large cities, such as Machu Picchu and Cuzco, and carved out an extensive road system that spanned over 2000 miles and over 5 modern countries. Many of these roads are still in use today.

Some interesting facts about the Incas: they were the only Pre-columbian American culture to move from the stone tools to bronze. “As opposed to their northern rivals in time, the Aztecs, it is believed the Inca sacrificed animals and agriculture not humans” They used runners to get information between two points on the many roads they

built. Due to the high altitude that many lived at they were able to preserve meat and

others foods by “freeze drying” them in the extreme hot and cold of their environment.

The Inca and Aztec empire were formed around the same time. Incan military was very active in 1438. They took over Cuzco which was located in southwest Peru. They ended with the conquest of Ecuador in the city of Quito. The Inca “empire stretched from Ecuador to Chile” (Stearns). The population of this Incan empire was over six million. Thats a big empire for this time! This was not always the case. Three hundred years before, a small Inca group competed with other villages for the land. They won the competitions and the land became theirs. Through expansion, they used “imperial organization”(Stearns).This was key to them for staying in control. The Incas focused on “strong traditions of mutual aid for those who can't work”(Stearns).

The Inca empire became very big with time. They focused on traditions and organization. This made them a successful empire.

Sterns, Peter N. "The Andean Kingdom of Chuquito in 1567." World History.

Conclusion (3-4 paragraphs)

I learned that this certain civilization transformed greatly with time. Advancements took people from hunting and gather to settling in cities. While being in cities caused formation of government and organization. Which was only made possible with great agricultural advancements.

Argentina transformed world civilizations by pushing the limits in terms of organized living. Such as civilizations in the Andes. It was so unique to create cities within the clouds such as Machu Picchu! This was a completely new way of living compared to other parts of the world. On top of this, to grow and farm in the sky was remarkable. That great advancement enabled Andean people to live in the Sky. This was an inspiration to other cultures, as it showed with great advancements anything is possible.

As I stated previously, society changed greatly over time. Back in the pre-classical age the Andean people were hunters and gathers. Meaning that people didn't settle. They wandered like animals. Living day by day, one kill at a time. There was no growing of crop. Hunting and gathering was the only way of survival. Yet times moved on to find a much more advanced society. Such as the classical age, where agriculture resulted in cities and forms of small governments. People were brought together, and so was their culture. A important thing from this time was the Interregional systems of communication. This is the start of good communication between different cultures. Which is important as it builds a sense of respect and understanding of different people.

We can learn from this civilization that with time things advance, expand and bring people together. It seems that with every advancement, government gets bigger and people become less independent. This is evident in the west today. As technology expands people become more specialized. Look at society, we are dependent on other people! There is no more such thing as a self sufficient people or cultures as a whole. This is a trend that was spotted all the ways back in ancient Andean culture.

Japan

The pre-classical age (3500 B.C.E.- 550 A.D.)

·       

This figure, known as the Jomon no Venus, dates back to approximately 3000 B.C.E. This estimate is based on the intricate details carved into the head of the clay figure. It was found in a known burial pit in the Tanabatake site in Yonezawa district. Unlike many of the other 20 thousand dogu figures found throughout Japan, this piece is fully intact, showing special care was taken to preserve it.

This artifact reflects the culture that created it. From the beginning of human civilization, the power of a tribe was directly related to its population. Because of this, child bearing was the primary role of women in these societies. Venus figures are female figures with exaggerated hips, thighs, and stomachs, that were created in an attempt to increase fertility.

This particular venus is far different from many of the others found throughout the world. Most Venus figures date from 24,000 - 19,000 B.C.E., placing them in the paleolithic era. The Jomon no Venus was created in the neolithic era. It is made from fired clay rather than wood or stone, and has a smooth and finished appearance.

"National Treasure "Dogu" part 1: "Jomon no Venus" (the Venus of Jomon)." National Treasure. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2017.

·        

These hunting and fishing tools were found in the Obara Shell Mound at Ofunato Bay. They are made of bone, which demonstrates the skill of craftsman who created them. Bone is a difficult material to work with due to its inconsistent grain and hardness. Included in this collection are fishhooks, arrowheads, a needle, and a harpoon.

The wide array of specialized tools discovered evidence the intelligence as well as the diversity of diet of the people who created them. Different styles of fishhooks are believed be used to catch different species of fish. The harpoons used are the most advanced. They are known as toggle head harpoons, which include a line that allows the head to break off without losing the prey. The wide array of specialized tool were used to catch an extremely diverse diet, with 50 different species of animal remains found along with the tools.

"Needles, hooks, and harpoon | Work of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art." The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2017.

·         

 

This intricate vessel was created during the middle Jomon period, approximately 3,500 - 2,500 B.C.E. It is made of fired clay, and its complicated design shows the early Japanese mastery of ceramics. Most pottery created during this time period was used for cooking. However, this piece’s irregular and complicated rim would not have been suitable for that purpose, suggesting it was likely used in rituals.

Its very existence tells a lot about the Jomon people. Primarily, they had the time and resources to create an object without any practical uses. This suggests that there was a surplus of food, as well as specialized labor. The practice of open pit firing often causes the piece to crack, suggesting that other pieces prior to this one were created. The immense time and effort involved in its creation proves the society that created it was wealthy and complex.

    "Deep Vessel with Handles | Work of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art." The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2017.

·         

Sannai-Maruyama site

The Sannai-Maruyama site is the largest Jomon settlement. It dates from the Early Jomon to the Middle Jomon period, and is located 20m above the banks of the Okidate river. The massive site covers almost 60 acres, which includes pit dwellings, storage pits, graves, buried pottery, large systematically arranged buildings, and over 2,000 stone artifacts. The site remained in use from 3900-2300 B.C.E, and continued to develop throughout that period.

The development of the site was not linear or gradual, varying greatly throughout its history. It began as a small site, and later “grew in intensity up to a peak associated with numerous grinding stones” used to process plant foods. This population growth is believed to be “associated with the explosion of a particular type or types of plant food, possibly chestnuts or other nuts.” Despite its larger population, many of the large buildings seen today were not built until the site declined to a smaller settlement.

The shift that led to the reduced population and other cultural changes is believed to be influenced by a change in diet, specifically, a shift away from the nuts previously consumed. It is believed that this shift in diet was caused due to “overexploitation or minor climate fluctuations”. The changes in size and number of the pit dwellings was also affected. The reduced population did not require as many dwellings, however the site became a year round dwelling rather than seasonal. It was after the population reduction that the large longhouses were built, which are believed to be built to accommodate a changing social structure.

"Sannai-Maruyama Site." Jomon Archaeological Sites in Hokkaido and Northern Tohoku. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2017.

·          

    

Like all other cultures, the Jomon people had specific burial practices. In early Jomon culture, mass burials were a common practice. However, not all deaths were treated equally. Children and infants were given preferential burial. Clay  jars, “for babies, infants and unborn foetuses, are commonly found in excavations in both eastern as well as western Japan”. Babies in particular were valued so much that “80% of the burial jars were of babies and unborn foetuses”.

As time passed, burial practices became more elaborate. Some jars for infants were even coated in a red paint made of iron oxide. It was during the late Jomon period that the use burial jars expanded, with adults also being buried in jars. Within the Jars, the bodies were curled up in an “anatomically neutral position”. Cremation was also practiced, but only in rare cases.

The most common burial practice throughout Japan during the pre-classical age was burial pits. In these pits, the dead were placed with their knees flexed against their chest. Unfortunately, very few human remains have survived in these pits due to the high acidity. Strangely, the most common location for these pits was, “in the central plaza area within the horseshoe shaped layout of pit-dwellings.”

"What happened when a Jomon villager died?" Heritage of Japan. N.p., 22 Apr. 2010. Web. 06 Apr. 2017.

·        

Tooth removal was a common practice during the Late Jomon Period. For example, “At major Jomon shell sites such as Satohama, Inariyama, Yoshigo, and Tsukumo the frequency of of ritual tooth ablation by individual was 80-100%”. Most commonly done to males entering puberty, this ritual tooth pulling could possibly have been a rite of passage. Although painful and potentially dangerous, this tradition had a number of advantages.

The appearance created by this tooth removal was crucial to the self identity of the Jomon people. Different tribes of Jomon people would have different groups of teeth pulled for different reasons. Because of this, the teeth pulled and the teeth kept created a common feature within the members of a tribe. After passing different milestones, different teeth would be removed. With this form of body modification, “a flash of a smile, “one would know the individual’s family, if they were an adult or not, if they were married, if they had experienced the death of a loved one,or if they had children.”

The method of tooth removal varied throughout Japan. Jomon teeth have been examined by the University of Nevada, who discovered “five types of systems of tooth ablation, mostly based on kinship”, meaning the method used was mostly dependant of family tradition. However, some methods were more effective than others. The most common method of removal, the traumatic method (striking with a rock), “resulted in incomplete removal of teeth leaving residual broken roots in about 10.2% of cases”.

"Posts about Ritual tooth ablation on Heritage of Japan." Heritage of Japan. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2017.

The classical age (550 -1185 C.E.)

·         

This Buddha, known as The Asuka Great Buddha, is potentially the oldest Buddha with a known creation date in all of Japan (606 C.E.). It is said to have been sculpted by Kuratsukuri no Tori, the first great Japanese sculptor of the Asuka period. The majority of the statue was destroyed in a number of fires since its creation, with only a section of the face, the left ear, and three fingers of the right hand surviving. The rest of the Buddha has been rebuilt with precious metals. The 3 meter tall statue currently contains 15 tons of copper and 30 kilograms of gold.

This artifact gives incredible insight into the culture that created it. It was created extremely early in the history of Japan, showing how deep the Buddhist religion is intertwined in Japanese culture. Buddhism was introduced to Japan by the kingdom of Baekje in Korea somewhere between 538 and 552. Today, 35% of Japan identifies as Buddhist. The creation of the statue was not only incredibly difficult and time consuming, but expensive. The scrap value of the metals alone today is over 1.3 million dollars, but the cultural and historical value makes it priceless. Clearly, the creation of the statue was extremely important to the people and society that created it.

"Asukadera Temple•." Asuka Travel: Asukadera Temple. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.

·         Tabernacle

This artifact, a Buddhist tabernacle, was created during the late 1100’s. It was designed to hold nearly 300 sutras, or Buddhist scrolls. Its frame is made of wood covered in lacquer, which has kept it protected for nearly 1000 years. On this frame, hemp cloth has been glued to create a surface for painting. On the inside of both doors, elaborate figures decorated with gold and silver foil “protected” the scrolls. On the back of the tabernacle are two names written in sanskrit, the sacred language of Buddhism. The name on the right is Shaka, the historical Buddha, and on the left, Amida, the Buddha of the Western Paradise.

This artifact not only served as a physical holder of the scrolls, but as a spiritual symbol for those who used it. The lavish materials and intricate artwork used indicates that the scrolls held were extremely important to the commissioner and users of the tabernacle. Merely by being in the presence of such a box, a spiritual mood could be more easily evoked. Because of these reasons, it is believed that the tabernacle was commissioned to gain religious merit during uncertain times.  

Visitor. "Buddhist Tabernacle." Cleveland Museum of Art. N.p., 22 Apr. 2017. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.

·    Keko     

This large and intricate basket was created during the late Heian period of Japan. In some Buddhist services, priests scatter flower petals made of paper from baskets called keko. This basket is made of bronze, and features complex engraved hostage flowers and vines across the bottom. It is carved with the suki-bori method, creating a 3 dimensional look. After it was carved, the entire basket was covered in gold, then silver was added to the flowers to create fine details. This keko   is a far more intricate than other keko baskets created previously, which were often made of simple bamboo.

The creation of this basket gives insight into Japanese and Buddhist culture. The first and most apparent question posed is why the basket is so complicated. The bamboo baskets previously used to distribute the paper flower pedals would have been just as effective. By using a basket like this instead, it is clear that the Buddhist religion was highly valued, and that when a surplus of wealth was available, no immediate survival or comfort needs were present. This piece was likely created to help evoke a spiritual response in those who attended the Buddhist rituals.

"Gold and Silver Plated Keko." Gold and Silver Plated Keko Ritual Basket with Openwork Hosoge Flower Design | 京都国立博物館 | Kyoto National Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.

·    Nigatsudō Burned Sutra

This hanging scroll was created during the Nara period (710 - 794 C.E.). It is one of sixty handscrolls donated to the temple Todaiji in the year 744. Written on the scrolls are various Buddhist texts. Unfortunately, a fire damaged many of the scrolls, and the remaining scrolls such as this one are known as, “Nigatsudo yakegyo”, or Nigatsudo Burned Sutras. The burned edges of the scrolls made them even more valuable, as they “captured the Buddhist idea that everything is impermanent”.

This scroll is one of the earliest examples of the practice of transcribing Buddhist texts using precious materials. The paper was colored indigo with expensive dye, and the characters are written in silver ink. This practice “was thought to confer spiritual merit on all those involved in the project,” helping to increase the feeling of spirituality. The characters are written in a special form of regular script, known as “kaisho”, this creates a sense of ornamentation and elegance while maximizing legibility.

"Unidentified Artist | Nigatsudō Burned Sutra | Japan | Nara period (710–794) | The Met." The Metropolitan Museum of Art, i.e. The Met Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.

·        

Buddhism:

Buddhism was introduced to Japan during the classical age in the year 538, when the ruler of Baekje from the Korean peninsula gifted the "brilliant image of the Buddha along with scripture-scrolls and ornaments to the Japanese emperor Kimmei". Many Japanese resisted this new religion stating that they already had the traditional religion of Shinto. However, the Soga clan believed Buddhism could enrich the culture of Japan. Because the Soga clan was so powerful and influential, the emperor listened.

40 years later, Prince Regent Shotoku became regent to the Empress Suiko. It was at this time that he declared Buddhism as the official religion of Japan. He believed that through the power of Buddhist teachings, Japan could become a "unified and culturally refined country." At the time, Japan was divided into 47 different prefectures. Because of these facts, it is clear that the spread of Buddhism through Japan was "highly motivated by political and cultural reasons".

"Part I: A Brief History of Buddhism in Japan." A Guide to Japanese Buddhism. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.

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Kuge Life

During the Heian period, the political structure was made up of the Fujiwara family. Under this organization, the class of nobles known as "kuge" flourished. Because of their wealth, the kuge lived isolated from politics, and were able to create a new Japanese culture, one that was "dominated by rituals, arts, and trends." Their works and practices remain a part of Japanese culture to this day.

The life for members of the kuge was made up of never-ending social events. 8 months out of each year "was devoted to either Shinto or Buddhist religious ceremonies. Men spent much of their remaining time entertaining the Emperor and Empress, dancing, or playing games. Women on the other hand, lived "a much more confined life than that of kuge men". They often watched the activities the men were engaged in, and "sat behind a silk screen and many layers of silk clothing".

Meissner, Daniel. "Poetry and Processions: The Daily Life of the Kuge in the Heian Court." Academic.mu. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.

The post-classical age (1185 C.E.-1650 C.E.)

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This artifact is an example of yoroi, a type of armor that wraps around the body with a 4 sided skirt. Armor like this was commonly used by warriors on horseback from the tenth to fourteenth centuries. This armor is highly decorated with silk threads of every color of the rainbow. On the breastplate is a drawing of Fudo Myo-o, a Buddhist deity with exceptional calmness and inner strength. It is for this reason that Fudo Myo-o was commonly used to decorate samurai armor.

This artifact represents the culture it was created in. During this era in Japanese history, feudalism was the dominant social system. Rich nobles were appointed land by the emperor and the commoners, or serfs, worked the land. To demonstrate power and keep order, the wealth noble class created armor like this and trained as warriors. They came to be known as samurai. It is because of their wealth that this armor was decorated with art and silk, as it was as much a symbol of authority as it was armor.

"Armor (yoroi) | Work of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art." The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 May 2017.

·         I

This artifact demonstrates post-classical poetry and calligraphy. It was written by an expert calligrapher named Muso Soseki during the 14th century. He became one of the most influential Zen priests of the time, having trained under the Chinese emigre Yishan Yining. His influence is apparent from his elegant cursive style of the text. The verse reads:

From heaven fall icy petals;
In the sky not a spot of blue remains.
A dusting of jade covers the ground
And buries the blue mountains.
The sun rises over the mountain peak.
The chill pierces my bones.
Silence prevails.

"Poem on the Theme of Snow | Musō Soseki | 2011.534 | Work of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art." The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 May 2017.



Portrait of a Zen Master

This artifact, a "Portrait of a Zen Master" was created during the 15th century. It is made of lacquered wood with inlaid crystal eyes. The effect and presence of the piece is created by the realism when sculpting the face. Unlike previous Japanese art, which was highly stylized, this piece is meant to be a perfect representation of the subject. This piece is believed to have been created in the living quarters of a zen temple. By sculpting in the temple, the constant reminder of the founder was in the mind of the creator. This idea was consistent with the teachings of Buddhism.

"Portrait of a Zen Master | Work of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art." The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 May 2017.

·         The Edicts of Toytomi

Upon the unification of Japan in the late 16th century, written social, economic and political reforms were required, "in order to pacify a population long accustomed to war and instability." The mid 1500's to the mid 1600's are known as "the Christian Century" in Japan. This is because Spanish and Portuguese missionaries ventured to Japan in an attempt to convert the Japanese to Christianity. They were successful in converting many "of the Samurai Elite and domain lords." Written rules were then created to limit the spread of Christianity.

These rules were important to Japan because the most common religion in Japan at the time, Buddhism, functioned as a unifying factor for the newly united Japan. These rules described the forced conversion to Christianity as an "unreasonable illegal act." Despite the heavy resistance of the government, religious freedom was protected. This is shown in the first rule, which states that the conversion and following of Christianity, "is up to that persons own conscience".

"The Edicts of Toyotomi." Primary Sources with Document-based Questions | Asia for Educators | Columbia University. N.p., n.d. Web. 08 May 2017.

The Muromachi period

The Muromachi period (1392 - 1573), was the era when the Ashikaga family made up the shogun, named after the area in Kyoto where their headquarters was located. Although the Ashikaga clan held control for nearly 200 years, "they never succeeded in extending their political control as far as the Kamakura bakufu," the clans that previously made up the shogun.

During this time period, provincial warlords, known as the daimyo held incredible political power. This allowed them to "strongly influence political events and cultural trends." As the power of the daimyo approached that of the central government, tensions grew, "and conflict soon erupted, culminating in the Onin War (1477-77)". The war resulted in the destruction of Kyoto and the shogunate's power, plunging the country into warfare and social chaos.

Art, Author: Department of Asian. "Muromachi Period (1392–1573) | Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art." The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 May 2017.

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The Samurai

Between the twelfth and nineteenth centuries, the military dominated Japanese politics, economics, and social policies. As experts in swordsmanship, horseback riding, and archery, the military elite, known as bushi or samuri, "rose to power through their military prowess". However their mastery of warfare wasn't sufficient to maintain their wealth and position, casuing them to seek "political, financial, and cultural acumen."

Despite their profession, much of the samuri class became highly civilized. They engaged in pursuits such as poetry, calligraphy, painting, and theater, "exerting a profound cultural influence". Some devoted their lives to Buddhism, especially in the Zen and Jodo schools. They commissioned "massive walls, vast audience chambers, and soaring keeps of their great castles," which became landmarks for their age. If is for this reason that the samurai class is commonly thought of when speaking of historical Japan.

Art, Author: Department of Asian. "Samurai | Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art." The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 May 2017.

Conclusion:

Over the course of its history, Japan has not had a major impact on world civilization due to its policy of isolationism, which lasted until the mid 1800's. Its culture has been influenced by a number of other civilizations especially by Korea and China. Korea introduced Buddhism, the most popular religion in Japan for hundreds of years, and remaining a popular religion to this day. Its presence dominated art and culture, as has been recorded by the Japanese script. The system of writing known today as Japanese did not begin in Japan. It was introduced by China in the late 8th century during the Heian Period. Over time, the script slowly evolved into what it is today.

Over the course of its history, the culture of Japan has undergone dramatic changes. During its pre-classical age, Japan was much like any other country. Women and men were treated as relative equals, both responsible for equally important jobs. They performed many primitive rituals including burials and tooth extraction. During the classical age, Japan became more unique. The spread of Buddhism from Korea dominated Japanese culture. Civilization developed under a surplus of food, leading to the creation of the upper class. Life for men and women was now completely different, with women spending the majority of their time watching the men. This social structure remained through the post-classical age.

Today, we can still learn from the history of the Japanese. They traditionally have lived by a strict code of honor, one that emphasizes honor and discipline, characteristics that people in America frequently lack. These characteristics have contributed to the massive economic success that Japan enjoys today, despite its lack of any and all natural resources. We in the West are blessed with natural resources and with the introduction of Japanese ideologies, we could benefit greatly.