Sudan

Pre-classical Sudan (3500-800 B.C.E.)

·             Nubian Archers

   The image pictured above is a display at the University of Chicago that shows the ancient weaponry used by the Nubians. The warriors have been well-known for their arching skills since ancient times. In fact, the Egyptian word Ta-Seti, meaning "Land of the Bow" was used to describe Nubia in ancient times. Egyptian writing from as early as 2400 BCE mentions Nubians who were used in the Egyptian army because of their immense skill. They also used their skill to eventually conquer the Egyptians in the 8th century BCE. 

      Nubian Archers. Digital image. The Oriental Institute. The University of Chicago, 2014. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.

Tile Depicting a Nubian Prisoner

This image is of an Egyptian artifact depicting a Nubian prisoner. It is believed to have been made during the New Kingdom in Egypt, between 1184-1153 BCE during the Reign of Ramesses. It displays a Nubian prisoner in subjugation to the Egyptian kingdom. Ancient Egypt and Sudan had a long standing relationship as trade partners, but also as adversaries that engaged in military conflict often. This is most likely a Nubian captive taken to Egypt. 

Tile Depicting a Nubian Prisoner. Digital image. The Oriental Institute. The University of Chicago, 2014. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.

Model of Nubian Soldiers

This model dates back to the Early Middle Kingdom in Egypt during the early 20th and late 19th centuries B.C.E. The model showcases the military relationship between the Egyptians and the Nubians. These models were found in tombs, this particular one in the tomb of an Egyptian, perhaps a governor, to accompany him to the afterlife. In this particular tomb, there was a Nubian and Egyptian army. The Nubian soldiers are holding bows, reminiscent of their reputation as skillful archers. 

Model of Nubian Soldiers. Digital image. Museums for Intercultural Dialogue. United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization, n.d. Web. 8 May 2017.

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·            Nubian Cattle Bowl

This Nubian pot dates between 1900 and 1750 BCE. It comes from what historians refer to as the C-group of ancient Nubia, which coexisted with several other cultural groups in Nubia from 2400 BCE to 1550 BCE prior to Egypt's conquest of Nubia. The C-group inhabited small circular houses, typically with foundations made of stone and relied greatly on cattle herding. They are known for their intricate pottery designs:

"The fine incised decoration of this bowl makes it an exceptional example of C-Group pottery. Although stylized, the representations of cattle on the bowl reveal keen observation of anatomy and behavior—horns have distinctive individual shapes, hide patterns vary, and tails switch against the following animal."

Cattle played an important role for Nubians in the C-group. Not only did they provide for the people's needs, they also functioned as important religious and spiritual symbols for the people. Additionally, the details on this bowl show great care and refined skill in the art of pottery:

"In addition to incised details, the bodies of the cattle were emphasized by burnishing. The background of dots was made by rocking the edge of a flat notched stone against the clay, a technique used since Neolithic times. The zigzag pattern decorating the exterior of the rim probably imitates leather laces."

The Chicago Cattle Bowl. Digital image. The Oriental Institute. The University of Chicago, 2014. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.

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        New York Times Article: Ancient Kingdoms in Land of War

    This article covers the efforts of archaeologists in modern Sudan and their important discoveries in recent years. While the country itself is currently war-torn, it is one of the only countries in sub-Saharan Africa to have local archaeologists working to uncover its rich history:

“The history of Sudan can play a role for Africa that Greece played for the history of Europe,” Mr. Rilly said enthusiastically. “People have been living here for 5,000 years” along the Nile, he added. “It is difficult not to find something.”

While the archaeologists have found many artifacts from the classical age, such as the the pyramids of Sedeinga, they have also found older artifacts from as early as 1500 BCE. One particular archaeologist, Charles Bonnet, has been doing a great deal of excavation in Dukki Gel, which contains an ancient Nubian city:

“I discovered a Nubian city in Dukki Gel with original African architecture from around 1500 B.C., and in a cache we found 40 pieces of seven monumental statues of black pharaohs,” Mr. Bonnet said. In late 2012, he found what he believes are the city’s walls."

Archaeologists such as Charles Bonnet are making important contributions to our often muddled understanding of ancient Nubia, particularly the history of the Kerma civilization in Nubia. While the article itself does not fully focus on his discoveries, and provides a broader perspective on modern archaeology of Nubia, it is important to Bonnet's commitment to uncovering early civilizations: 

"He focuses on the ancient civilization of Kerma — so much so that his friends call him Charles “Kerma” Bonnet — which flourished around 1500 B.C. Mr. Bonnet’s colleagues say that his research has greatly added to the understanding of 1,000 years of Sudan’s ancient history."

There is a great need to protect these ancient Nubian artifacts in modern Sudan. Relics are often stolen and sold for money. While often unable to focus on archaeological efforts, the government has recently signed a $135 million agreement with Qatar which will allow more archaeological missions to excavate parts of the country. 

Kushkush, Isma'il. "Ancient Kingdoms in Land of War." The New York Times. The New York Times Company, 31 Mar. 2013. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.

    New York Times Article: Ancient Nubian Artifacts Yield Evidence of Earliest Monarchy

This article discusses evidence of kings in ancient Nubian from as early as 3300 B.C. To put that in perspective, the first known Egyptian king does not come into power until around 3150 B.C.E., and the First Dynasty does not begin until 3100 B.C.E. Not only does this put into perspective how often history overlooks Ancient Nubia in comparison to Ancient Egypt, it also shows how early development in Nubian society could have been a precursor that influenced many of the kingdoms in Egypt and Nubia that came after it. 

The artifacts of this particular exhibition were discovered in the 1960s in a cemetery on the Nile, near the boundary of modern Sudan and Egypt, which contained thirty-three ancient tombs. Archaeologists discovered a great deal of pottery, jewelry, and other objects such as incense burners that suggested wealth in the area. 

“Keith Seele had suspected the tombs were special, perhaps even royal,” Dr. Williams said in an interview. “It was obvious from the quantity and quality of the painted pottery and the jewelry that we were dealing with wealthy people. But it was the picture on a stone incense burner that indicated we really had the tomb of a king.”  

The picture that Dr. Williams mentions in this excerpt is of a palace facade. In front of that facade sits a crowned king on a thrown in a boat. Above the king is a god, known as the falcon god Horus. Much of the imagery is similar to that of later pieces associated with Egyptians kingdoms, reflecting the strong influence that the cultures had on another.

"The majestic figure on the incense burner, Dr. Williams said, is the earliest know representation 'of a king in the Nile Valley. His name is unknown, but he is believed to have lived approximately three generations of kings before the time of Scorpion, the earliest known Egyptian ruler."

Some of the artifacts that they found even included what appeared to be writing, similar to that of Egyptian hieroglyphs, however, they were not readable.

"They were on their way to literacy." Dr. Williams said. "probably quite close to Egypt in this respect."

There are accounts in later Egyptian writing of the Egyptians attacking this area around 3000 B.C.E., most likely referred to as Ta-Seti or "Land of the Bow" at the time. Dr. William's mentions that the people of Ta-Seti may have migrated up the Nile to modern day Dunqulah after this attack and began settling what would later become the Kingdom of Kush.

      Rensberger, Boyce. "Ancient Nubian Artifacts Yield Evidence of Earliest Monarchy." The New York Times 1 Mar. 1979: n. pag. The New York Times. The New York Times Company. Web. 4 May 2017.                                                  

Classical Sudan (800 B.C.E.-500 C.E.)

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       Stela of Pekartror

This image of the Kushite Prince Pekartror was created between 746-656 B.C.E., a time when Nubia (or the Kingdom of Kush) ruled over Egypt. The piece itself is Egyptian-style, and was found in a Egypt's national cemetery. There was a great deal of overlap between Nubian and Egyptian culture, as they often traded with one another and vied for power over territory. 

The Prince is pictured on the left of the tablet in Nubian clothing. The writing explains how Prince Perkartror travelled from Nubia to Egypt when his mother died to put together her burial. She lived in Egypt, which provides even more evidence of the overlap between the two cultures. 

A Kushite Prince Pictured in an Egyptian Scene. Digital image. The Oriental Institute. The University of Chicago, 2014. Web. 22 Apr. 2017.

   

       Jewelry from the tomb of Queen Amanishakheto in Meroe

This fine jewelry was discovered in 1834 and is dated to around the first century B.C.E. It was found in the largest pyramid in Meroe. It belonged to Queen Amanishakheto, the ruler of the Kingdom of Kush whose reign occurred in the first century B.C.E. They are composed mostly of gold and infused glass and show Nubia's broad connections to the world, reflecting Pharaonic and Hellenistic influence. 

Jewelry from the Tomb of Queen Amanishakheto in Meroe. Digital image. Society for the Promotion of the Egyptian Museum Berlin. Society for the Promotion of the Egyptian Museum Berlin, n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.

Bark Stand of King Natakamani and Queen Amanitore

This piece was found at the sight of Wad Ben Naga in Sudan in a destroyed temple. The sandstone altar pictured above, along with two others, were still in good condition. It functioned as a stand for the "bark of the god" or his cult statue. The panels contain hieroglyphs, the top ones showing a starry sky, which is being held up by two goddesses, the king, and the queen. The queen is portrayed by Meroitic standards of beauty, with short hair and a curvy body. Interestingly, the King and Queen's names are written in both Egyptian hieroglyphs and the Meroitic script. Although their throne names are only written in Egyptian hieroglyphs. 

Bark Stand of King Natakamani and Queen Amanitore. Digital image. Society for the Promotion of the Egyptian Museum Berlin. Society for the Promotion of the Egyptian Museum Berlin, n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.

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       The Selection of Aspalta as King of Kush 

This selection comes from around 600 B.C.E. from the Kingdom of Kush in Napata. At this time, Kush was an independent state in Nubia. Shortly before this time Nubian kings had ruled in Egypt during the 25th Dynasty, but this came to an end in the mid 6th century B.C.E. when the Assyrians came into power in Egypt. During King Aspalta's rule, the capital of Kush was still located at Napata, but would soon relocate to Meroe.

The piece provides a political as well as cultural description of classical Nubia. It focuses on the selection of the King of Kush following the death of the previous King.

"Now the entire army of his majesty was in the town named Napata, in which Dedwen, Who presides over Wawat, is God---he is also the god of Kush---after the death of the Falcon [Inle-Amon] upon his throne."

The ancient writing highlights the importance god-like beings' involvement in the process of choosing a new king.

"Still there is this god Amon-Re, Lord of the Thrones of It-Tjwy, Resident in Napata. He is also a god of Kush. Come, let us go to him. We cannot do a thing without him, but a good fortune comes from the god. He is the god of the kings of Kush since the time of Re. It is he who will guide us. In his hands is the kingship of Kush, which he has given to the son whom he loves....."

The Kushites are reliant upon one of their main gods, Amon-Re, the sun god who was also worshipped in the Egyptian culture. They are endowing power on their new king by calling on Amon-Re to choose a worthy ruler. The commanders and palace officials go to the temple of Amon in Napata and ask that the prophets and priests pray to Amon-Re to bestow upon them a new king. When the commanders and palace official enter the temple, they pray deeply and intensely that Amon-Re will name their new king. In the story, Amon-Re responds directly to the people, and even speaks to them when he is choosing the king. He is more than just an abstract idea, but a real and valuable power to the Napatans. 

"Then they offered the king's brothers before this god, but he did not take one of them. For a second time there was offered the king's brother, son of Amon, and child of Mut, Lady of Heaven, the Son of Re, Aspalta, living forever. Then this god, Amon-Re, Lord of the Thrones of It-Tjwy, said, "He is your king. It is he who will revive you. It is he who will build every temple of Kemet and Rekhyt. It is he who will present their divine offerings. His father was my son, the Son of Re, Inle-Amon, the triumphant. His mother is the king's sister, king's mother, Kandake of Kush, and Daughter of Re, Nensela, living forever, He is your lord."

Not only does this piece highlight the importance of religious belief in classical Nubia, it also gives a brief look into the political workings of the land. Power was viewed as a heavenly endowment, and the people believed that in this heaven-endowed power would come greatness for their kingdom. 

                            "The Selection of Aspalta as King of Kush." Ancient History Sourcebook. Fordham University, n.d. Web. 25 Apr. 2017.                                                  

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    Inscription of Ezana, King of Axum

This piece also concerns the Kingdom of Kush, specifically its fall to the Kingdom of Axum. This document comes from around 325 C.E., close to the fall of Meroe, Kush's capital, in the 4th century C.E. The writing is essentially a description of the plunder of Meroe by the King of Axum. Kush was weakening for a number of reasons at this time, including raids by nomads of the South and East. However, it is most likely the invasion of the nearby Kingdom of Axum in Ethiopia that lead to its ultimate decline.

The inscription describes a violent plunder of the city.

"And I armed myself with the power of the Lord of the Land and fought on the Takkaze at the ford of Kemalke. And thereupon they fled and stood not still, and I pursued the fugitives twenty-three days slaying them and capturing others and taking plunder from them, where I came; while prisoners and plunder were brought back by my own people who marched out; while I burnt their towns..."

    It also provides insight on the economy of Kush at the time, describing the riches and goods that the plunderers were able to access.  
                                                  
 "...those of masonry and those of straw, and seized their corn and their bronze and the dried meat and the images in their temples and destroyed the stocks of corn and cotton..."

The inscription recounts the various towns that the King of Axum and his troops plundered and the goods that existed in those towns, specifically the towns of masonry and straw. It concludes with the king's declaration of himself as ruler.

"...and my people returned safe and sound after they had taken prisoners and slain others and had seized their plunder through the power of the Lord of Heaven. And I erected a throne at the junction of the rivers Seda and Takkaze, opposite the town of masonry which is on this peninsula."

It is clear that there is a religious component to Axum's conquests. At this time, the King of Axum had recently adopted Christianity, eventually converting the kingdom to Christianity.

                            "Inscription of Ezana, King of Axum." Ancient History Sourcebook. Fordham University, n.d. Web. 25 Apr. 2017.                                                  

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Role of Women in Nubia

This article discusses the rule of women in Nubia, particularly in religion and royalty. It focuses more on woman in power than on the average women of the day, but the powerful women highlighted in the article throw light onto how women could have been viewed in Nubian society, particularly during the classical age. 

 "The Nubians has an unusually high number of ruling queens, especially during the golden age of the Meroitic Kingdom (1). Although ruling queens, in themselves, may not be unusual, the portrayal of Nubian queen is exceptional. A panel on display at the exhibit "Nubia: Egypt's Rival in Africa" showed the queen smiting her enemies. This type of representation has no equivalent in either Egyptian or Western Art (2)."


The culture of Nubia allowed for a greater appreciation of women, particularly because of its connection to the Cult of Isis that began during the Meroitic Period (about 300 B.C.E. to 400 A.D.). The cult was based around the goddess Isis, the goddess of magical powers and the representation of the queen mother. She is considered the queen of all goddesses by the cult. While both Egyptians and Nubians ascribed to the cult, it was most popular among Nubians. A greater portion of Egyptians worshipped primarily the sun god, Ra, a male deity.  

"Perhaps as a result of the strong influence of women figures in religion, Nubia and its Kushite rulers gave way to a number of strong queens during its history. Ten sovereign ruling queens are recognized from the period. Additionally, six other queens who ruled with their husbands were considered significant to the history of Nubia (25). Many of these rulers were immortalized in statuary; it was unheard of for non-ruling queens or princesses to be immortalized in art (26). These queens were often portrayed as being very rounded; this portrayal was all part of the queen-mother model (27)."

Women began to take a greater role in politics during the rule of the Kingdom of Kush, which allowed power to be placed in the hands of kings' wives. Kushite rulers passed a great deal of power to their wives, and as a result many queens began dominating political activities. For example, in 24 B.C.E. the powerful Kushite Queen Amanirenas lead her armies in defense of Nubia against the Roman Empire, which had already subjugated Egypt to its rule at the time. 

 "During this time (around 23 B.C.) Egypt fell into Roman control. The Romans attempted to make Nubia pay tribute to them. This led to the first confrontation between Nubia and the Romans. The Meroitic Period proved to be one of tremendous resistance to the forces acting on Africa at the time. Much of this resistance came at the hands of the number of ruling queens during the period."

Queen Amanirenas managed to defeat three Roman cohorts when they were confronted in one of their raids of Egypt. The Queen defaced a statue Augustus Caesar in this endeavor, bringing it back as a prize for Nubia. 

Kneller, Tara L. "Role of Women in Nubia." (1993): n. pag. University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center. University of Pennsylvania. Web. 7 May 2017.

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Post-classical Sudan (500 C.E.-1300 C.E.)

Silver Diadem

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This crown comes from around the 5th century C.E., and belonged to a local potentate who lived in one of the small kingdoms that existed falling the breakup of the Empire of Meroe. A local king, perhaps Silko, "King of Nobatae and all of Ethiopians" according to an inscription by the Greeks, was adorned by this crown in his grave. It is clear that the crown itself contains Egyptian influence but its symbol and form are not Egyptian, showing the continued overlap between Nubia and Egypt, while highlighting the uniqueness of Nubian culture. A great deal of the symbolism on the crown shows the influence of Kushite culture that remained in the area. 

Silver Diadem. Digital image. Museums for Intercultural Dialogue. United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization, n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2017.

·             Kohl Pot in the Form of a Sphinx

While this piece was discovered in Egypt, many of its elements reflect Nubian culture, which yet again showcases the overlap between the two cultures. The statue comes from the 4th century C.E., and is actually a kohl pot made in the form of a sphinx, a mythical creature with a human head and the body of a lion. Kohl pots were used to hold eye paint, a popular beauty product in Egyptian and Nubian culture. These pots were often found in tombs to go with the dead into the afterlife. While the kohl pot contains many Egyptian, post Meroitic features, the sphinx resembles the Nubian god-lion Apedemak. 

Kohl Pot in the Form of a Sphinx. Digital image. Museums for Intercultural Dialogue. United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization, n.d. Web. 7 May 2017.

Ostracon Bearing Meroitic Inscription

While this image is not the latest artifact found with Meroitic script, which is dated to the 5th century C.E., it is one of the later ones, dated to the 2nd or 3rd century C.E. It is important to note the similarities between Egyptian hieroglyphs and Meroitic script, while appreciating the great differences between the two. For example, while sharing certain elements, the Meroitic script is still largely indecipherably. This leaves many writings by the Nubians themselves untranslated, including this tablet. 

   "While the Napatans even wrote their royal inscriptions in the Egyptian language by using the traditional hieroglyphic system, the sovereigns of Meroë, from the 2nd century BC, promoted their own writing system as well as their own language."

The writing system itself is very logical and effective. The particular form of Meroitic writing on the ostracon is a cursive script, which differs from the hieroglyphic Meroitic script, and was used for a variety of writings such as royal memorial inscriptions, royal and private epitaphs, as well as administrative and economical texts. While this specific form of writing disappeared around the beginning of the post-classical age, it would could to influence later Nubian language and writing. 

Ostracon Bearing Meroitic Inscription. Digital image. Museums for Intercultural Dialogue. United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization, n.d. Web. 7 May 2017.

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         Procopius of Caesarea: History of the Wars

It is important to note that Egyptian culture was not the only African civilization to overlap with Nubian culture. In the Western world, many writings regard the land of Ethiopia as encompassing parts of modern Sudan and past Nubia, and indeed, the proximity between the two lands allowed for overlap between the two. 

This article mentions the Byzantine Emperor Justinian, and his request for help from the Ethiopian and Omeritae people in battling the Persians.

"At that time, when Ellestheaeus was reigning over the Ethiopians, and Esimiphaeus over the Omeritae, the Emperor Justinian sent an ambassador, Julianus, demanding that both nations on account of their community of religion should make common cause with the Romans in the war against the Persians..."

 In other words, they Byzantines and Ethiopians were both Christians. However, the more valuable information, particularly that on the Nobatae (Nubian people), is located in the background information that the historian provides. 

"From the city of Auxumis to the Egyptian boundaries of the Roman domain, where the city called Elephantine is situated, is a journey of thirty days for an unencumbered traveler. Within that space many nations are settled, and among them the Blemmyae and the Nobatae [Nubians], who are very large nations. But the Blemmyae dwell in the central portion of the country, while the Nobatae possess the territory about the River Nile."

The piece, written by a man of Byzantium, sheds a fairly judgmental light on the Nubian people, revealing feelings of superiority on the part of the Eastern Empire. For example, the author writes of a deal made between the two, which involved giving the Nubian people money in exchange for a promise that the Nobatae would no longer plunder Roman lands. However, even after being given a sum of money, the Nobatae continued to plunder.

"Thus, it seems that with all barbarians there is no means of compelling them to keep faith with the Romans except through the fear of soldiers to hold them in check."

The author also mentions the religion of the Nubians before their conversion to Christianity, highlighting the shared gods between the Greeks and the Africans as a result of cultural exchange between the two, particularly the Emperor Diocletian's dedication of several temples in the region to the Greek gods. 

"Now, both these nations, the Blemmyae and the Nobatae, believe in all the gods in which the Greeks believe, and they also reverence Isis and Osiris, and not least of all Priapus."

"Procopius of Caesarea: History of Wars." (n.d.): n. pag. Rpt. in Ancient History Sourcebook. N.p.: Fordham U, n.d. Internet History Sourcebook. Web. 8 May 2017.

Christian Nubia

This article encompasses a great deal of Nubian history, but the particular part that I focused on involved Christianity in the post-classical age. Around 600 C.E., Nubia became a Christian kingdom, but Christianity was present from as early as the 4th century C.E. After the fall of Meroe, when the Empire split up into a few smaller kingdoms, missionaries from the Eastern and Wester Christian Churches were working among the Nubian people and their rulers, working to convert populations. There are ancient historians that write of the Christian conversions in Nubia, providing more specific details of the timing of religious changes in Nubia.

"Ephesus records that a Monophysite priest named Julian converted the king and his nobles of Nobatia around 545. John of Ephesus also writes that the kingdom of Alodia was converted around 569." 

While these records are valuable, there is some contradicting information available in other documents, showing that Nubia was influenced by both Eastern and Western Christianity, and that its allegiance to these Churches changed over time. 

 "However, John of Biclarum records that the kingdom of Makuria was converted to Catholicism the same year, suggesting that John of Ephesus might be mistaken. Further doubt is cast on John’s testimony by an entry in the chronicle of the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria Eutychius, which states that in 719 the church of Nubia transferred its allegiance from the Greek to the Coptic Orthodox Church."

One of the kingdoms of Nubia, known as Makuria, became the main power in the Nubian region by the 7th century C.E., protecting the area from the growing expansion of Islam to the South of Egypt. However, the Arabs and Nubians agreed to a peace treaty, and trade as well as cultural exchange ensued between the cultures for the next six hundred years and Islam had become increasingly popular nearing the end of the post-classical age. 

"Over time the influx of Arab traders introduced Islam to Nubia and it gradually supplanted Christianity."

In fact, by the 1300s some Nubians identified as Arab and the Arabic language, along with the Old Nubian language was largely spoken in the region. 

Thomas, Ian. "Nubia and the Noba People." Black History Month 365. Sugar Media and Marketing, 12 Mar. 2015. Web. 7 May 2017.

·              Medieval Nubia: Contact with Arabs

        This secondary article discusses the period following the reign of Nubia as a Christian kingdom, and the warring period between Islamic forces in Egypt and native forces in Nubia. The Arabs observed that the Nubians were incredible archers, holding onto their ancient legacy as the "Land of the Bow". 

    

"From this time on, knowledge of the history of the country is obtained almost exclusively from Arab sources, there being very little native information obtainable. The Arab conquest of Egypt in A.D. 640 had a profound effect on Nubia ; after only sixty years her contacts with Byzantium were broken and, though contact was maintained with Christian elements in Egypt, the Mediterranean content of religion and culture became weaker as time went on."

The article also shines light on the Nubian language at the time, which historically was mysterious and difficult to translate in ancient times because of the indecipherable Meroitic script. This newer form of  Nubian writing and language shows a strong relationship with Eastern Europe, containing many of the same letters in the Coptic Greek alphabet. 

"It is probably from this period that the few known texts in the Nubian language come. They are unfortunately very few and are of little or no value from a historical point of view. They are, however, of great importance linguistically, and show that by at least the end of the tenth century Nubian had become a written language. This language, known as Old Nubian, is closely related to the modern Mahass dialect of Nubian, which is spoken from the Second Cataract to Abu Fatina at the Third Cataract, and thus covers very much the area of Nobatia. "

While the Nubians engaged consistently in battle with the Islamic forces of Egypt during the Middle Ages, they were eventually unable to stave off Islamic influence completely and the religion on culture shifted in the 1300s. The ruling kingdom at the time was Makuria, and after hundreds of years of fighting it capital, Dongola fell to Muslim invaders. At this time much of the Eastern Christian influence faded and paved the way for a heavy Islamic influence in the later Middle Ages. 

"The last Christian king of Dongola was Kudanbes, who in A.D. 1323 was defeated by Kanz ed Dawla; the Christian kingdom came to an end and the country thrown open to the Arabs became rapidly Islamized."

It is important to note these changes of power in Nubia, particularly because Islam has affected modern day Sudan so strongly, and the precedents for this influence were set in ancient times. 

      Shinnie, P.L. "Medieval Nubia and Byzantium." The Society of St. John Chrysostom, n.d. Web. 8 May 2017.

Conclusion

I thought that the Nubian civilization was incredibly interesting, particularly because its influence is often downplayed in comparison to Ancient Egypt, and most people know less about it and its history. The Nubians and other peoples of Ancient Sudan were a highly advanced and worldly culture that interacted, not only with fellow Africans, such as Egyptians and Ethiopians, many of which overlapped in culture, but also with Westerners such as the Greeks and Romans. I think the greatest information that I learned from studying Ancient Nubia is that culture does not exist in a vacuum, and that the choices that people made thousands of years ago are still having an impact on us today. 

It is interesting to observe the way that the Nubian civilization fluctuated in its conservatism. The classical age reigned in more freedom for women of power, greater than that of most areas in the same age. However, as religious values turned towards Christianity and Islam so did these values change. 

I think that there is a lot to be learned from Nubian civilization, in its cultural flexibility and remarkable ability to communicate with cultures vastly different from their own. There will always be patterns that are similar between ancient and modern civilization, such as modes of economic success and power play in the government. However, I think that it is important to recognize the value and intelligence of earlier civilizations that have set the standard for the future.

Nubia, which is often shoved into the same category as Egypt, or merely forgotten about in this discussion, has so much to offer in its vast and diverse culture. While they had their fare share of evils as any kingdom does, they were also capable of showing a great deal of acceptance and willingness to share with other ancient civilizations, and I think that those ideals could be useful today, particularly with the growing sense isolationism in the West.